What's New in Pediatric Septic Arthritis? A Review of Pertinent Clinical Questions.

BACKGROUND: The evaluation and treatment of children with septic arthritis (SA) is challenging and requires an organized approach to address the spectrum of pathogens which appear to aggregate in age-specific groups. Although evidence-based guidelines have recently been published for the evaluation and treatment of children with acute hematogenous osteomyelitis, there is a relative dearth of literature devoted exclusively to SA. METHODS: Recently published guidance for the evaluation and treatment of children with SA was reviewed and evaluated with respect to pertinent clinical questions to summarize what is new in this area of practice for pediatric orthopaedic surgeons. RESULTS: Evidence suggests that there is a profound difference between children with primary SA and those who have contiguous osteomyelitis. This disruption of the commonly accepted paradigm of a continuum of osteoarticular infections has important implications in the evaluation and treatment of children with primary SA. Clinical prediction algorithms have been established to help determine the applicability of magnetic resonance imaging during the evaluation of children suspected to have SA. Antibiotic duration for SA has been recently studied with some evidence in favor of short-course parenteral followed by short-course oral therapy may be successful if the pathogen is not methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus . CONCLUSION: Recent studies of children with SA have provided better guidance for evaluation and treatment to improve diagnostic accuracy, processes of evaluation, and clinical outcomes. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level 4.

Children with Primary Septic Arthritis Have a Markedly Lower Risk of Adverse Outcomes Than Those with Contiguous Osteomyelitis.

BACKGROUND: It is widely believed that septic arthritis poses a risk of joint destruction and long-term adverse outcomes for children if not treated emergently. In the present study, children who had primary confirmed septic arthritis were compared with those who had septic arthritis and adjacent osteomyelitis to evaluate differences that affect the relative risk of adverse outcomes. METHODS: Children who underwent multidisciplinary treatment for septic arthritis with or without contiguous osteomyelitis between 2009 and 2019 were retrospectively studied. Clinical, laboratory, treatment, and outcome data were compared between cohorts of children with primary confirmed septic arthritis and children with septic arthritis and contiguous osteomyelitis. RESULTS: One hundred and thirty-four children had primary confirmed septic arthritis, and 105 children had septic arthritis with contiguous osteomyelitis. Children with osteomyelitis were older (median, 7.4 versus 2.4 years), had higher initial C-reactive protein (median, 15.7 versus 6.4 mg/dL), and had a higher rate of thrombocytopenia (21.0% versus 1.5%). They also had a higher rate of bacteremia (69.5% versus 20.2%) for a longer duration (median, 2.0 versus 1.0 days). Detected pathogens in children with osteomyelitis as compared with those with primary septic arthritis were more likely to be Staphylococcus aureus (77.1% versus 32.1%) and less likely to be Kingella kingae (2.9% versus 32.1%). Children with contiguous osteomyelitis had longer hospitalizations (median, 8.0 versus 4.0 days), a higher rate of intensive care (21.0% versus 1.5%), a higher readmission rate (17.1% versus 5.2%), and a higher complication rate (38.1% versus 0.7%). CONCLUSIONS: Primary septic arthritis in children is dissimilar to septic arthritis associated with osteomyelitis. The present study demonstrates that long-term adverse outcomes in children with septic arthritis are likely due to the contiguous osteomyelitis. Children with primary septic arthritis are sufficiently distinguishable from those who have contiguous osteomyelitis to guide decisions for magnetic resonance imaging acquisition, duration of antibiotic therapy, and length of outpatient follow-up in order to recognize and address adverse outcomes. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Prognostic Level III. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

Primary Septic Arthritis Among Children 6 to 48 Months of Age: Implications for PCR Acquisition and Empiric Antimicrobial Selection.

INTRODUCTION: Primary septic arthritis requires unique evaluation and treatment considerations for children in the 6- to 48-month age range because of the spectrum of identified pathogens and high rate of negative cultures. The purpose of this study is to evaluate primary septic arthritis in this age group in order to differentiate children with infection caused by Kingella kingae from those with other confirmed pathogens and those with no identified pathogen. METHODS: Preschool children who underwent multidisciplinary evaluation and treatment for septic arthritis between 2009 and 2019 were retrospectively studied. Three cohorts were established for comparison of clinical and laboratory features of primary septic arthritis: (1) confirmed K. kingae, (2) confirmed other pathogen, and (3) presumed (without identified pathogen). RESULTS: Among 139 children with septic arthritis, 40 (29%) were confirmed K. kingae, 29 (21%) other pathogen, and 70 (50%) presumed. Children with Kingella and those with presumed septic arthritis had significantly lower initial C-reactive protein (4.8 and 4.5 vs. 9.3 mg/dL) and fewer febrile hospital days (0.2 and 0.4 vs. 1.3 d) than children with other confirmed pathogens. Children with other pathogens had higher rates of bacteremia (38% vs. 0%) and positive joint fluid cultures (86% vs. 15%) than that of children with Kingella. The rate of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) acquisition was 38 of 40 (95.0%) Kingella cases, 18 of 29 (62.1%) other pathogen cases, and 33 of 70 (47.1%) presumed cases. CONCLUSIONS: K. kingae was the most commonly identified pathogen among 6-month to 4-year-old children. The Kingella and other identified pathogens in this study serve to guide empiric antimicrobial recommendations for this age range. Because of similarities between children with septic arthritis because of K. kingae and those with no identified pathogen, it is likely that an unrecognized burden of Kingella resides in culture negative cases, particularly if no PCR is sent. Systematic evaluation, including PCR acquisition, and a high index of suspicion for K. kingae are recommended to thoroughly evaluate septic arthritis in preschool children. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III-Retrospective cohort comparison.

Pediatric Type II Supracondylar Humerus Fractures: Factors Associated With Successful Closed Reduction and Immobilization.

PURPOSE: The debate on the treatment of type IIa supracondylar humerus fractures has yet to be resolved. The purpose of this study was to assess the factors associated with successful closed reduction and immobilization and to assess the efficacy of a novel radiographic "hourglass" angle measurement in the management of type IIa supracondylar humerus fractures within the pediatric population. METHODS: An institutional review board-approved retrospective review of all children who underwent closed reduction and casting or splinting of an isolated type IIa supracondylar humerus fractures treated at 2 pediatric hospitals from January 1, 2009 to August 31, 2016. Analyzed radiographic parameters included Baumann angle (BA), humerocondylar angle (HCA), perpendicular distance (PD) from the anterior humeral line to the capitellum, and the hourglass angle (HGA). These parameters were measured on injury radiographs (XR), postreduction XR, and at the first and final follow-up XR. The success of closed reduction was defined as maintenance of an acceptable reduction without a secondary procedure. The interobserver reliability was calculated. RESULTS: There were 77 elbows treated with closed reduction and long-arm cast or splint immobilization. Of those closed reductions, 76.62% of elbows (59/77) maintained their reduction alignment and did not require surgical treatment for percutaneous pinning. In this series, the BA was not significantly different following closed reduction ([INCREMENT]1.04 degrees; P=0.081); however, the PD ([INCREMENT]1.89 mm), HGA ([INCREMENT]7.38 degrees), and HCA ([INCREMENT]5.07 degrees) had significant improvement following closed reduction (P<0.001 for all). The use of procedural sedation during reduction was strongly associated with success, 83.05% (49/59) with sedation compared with 55.56% (10/18) success without sedation (P=0.025). Furthermore, fractures that underwent a secondary procedure had 6.20 degrees less HGA following a closed reduction (P=0.016) and required additional follow-up visits (P=0.0037). The success of type IIa supracondylar humerus fractures did not significantly differ based on sex (P=0.5684), laterality (P=0.6975), mechanism of injury (P>0.9999), location of care-emergency department versus clinic (P=0.1160), or type of fracture immobilization (P=0.7411). The mean HGA in normal elbows was 177.8 degrees. The interobserver reliability for HCA was poor [intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC)=0.342]; fair for BA (ICC=0.458); and excellent for both PD and HGA (ICC=0.769 and 0.805, respectively) (P<0.001 for all). CONCLUSIONS: Improved and acceptable radiographic parameters were achieved by a closed reduction in the majority of minimally displaced type IIa fractures treated by closed reduction and immobilization in this series. HCA upon presentation was significantly greater in successful cases, and failure to improve and maintain HGA and PD following closed reduction was associated with loss of reduction. Procedural sedation during reduction was strongly associated with success. The HGA and PD were consistent parameters used to determine effective management of type IIa fractures. This study adds support for a nonoperative closed reduction under sedation with immobilization of selected type IIa supracondylar humerus fractures.

Kingella kingae Septic Arthritis in an Older-Than-Expected Child.

Kingella kingae typically causes musculoskeletal infection in young children between the ages of 6 months and 4 years who may be in close contact with other similarly aged children who are colonized with the organism in their oropharynx. Kingella infections have rarely been described in older individuals with chronic medical conditions or immune compromise. This is a case report of a healthy, older child who developed an invasive infection due to Kingella kingae. Clinical and laboratory details are provided of an otherwise healthy 11-year-old female who developed an acute onset of septic arthritis of her shoulder. The organism was identified by culture and 16S polymerase chain reaction. Her clinical course necessitated an antibiotic change after the organism was correctly identified. The affected child had close contact with a 2-year-old sibling who recently had a viral upper respiratory infection. This case illustrates the potential for Kingella kingae to rarely cause invasive infection in older, healthy children. Supplemental laboratory techniques may be helpful to identify this organism. Although it is reasonable to limit the antibiotic spectrum for older children, clinicians should be aware of this possibility, particularly if there is a history of close contact with young children.

Differentiation of Deep Venous Thrombosis Among Children With or Without Osteomyelitis.

BACKGROUND: Children with osteomyelitis are at risk for deep venous thrombosis (DVT). This study evaluates the characteristics of DVT among children to differentiate between those with and without osteomyelitis. METHODS: Children with DVT of any cause were studied between 2008 and 2016. Children with DVT and osteomyelitis were compared with those with DVT without osteomyelitis. Another comparison cohort included children with osteomyelitis but without DVT. Comorbidities, severity of illness (SOI), and clinical course were compared between cohorts. RESULTS: DVT was identified in 224 children, a prevalence of 2.5 per 10,000 children. Among those with DVT, 28 (12.1%) had osteomyelitis. The DVT rate among 466 children with osteomyelitis was 6.0%. Children with osteomyelitis and DVT had greater SOI (9.1 vs. 2.7), bacteremia rate (82.1% vs. 38.4%), methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus rate (89.3% vs. 21.2%), surgeries per child (2.1 vs. 0.7), and intensive care unit admission rate (67.9% vs. 5.9%) than that of children without DVT (P<0.00001). Of 196 children who had DVT without osteomyelitis, 166 (84.7%) had comorbidities including defined hypercoagulability (27 or 13.8%). Children with DVT due to osteomyelitis were without comorbidities or hypercoagulability (P<0.00001). The rate of pulmonary embolism was similar for children with DVT with or without osteomyelitis (3/28, or 10.7% vs. 18/196, or 9.2%). CONCLUSIONS: Children with DVT and osteomyelitis differ substantially from other children with DVT by the absence of comorbidities or post-thrombotic syndrome. They also differ from children with osteomyelitis without DVT by higher SOI, methicillin-resistant S. aureus rate, and occurrence of intensive care. Awareness of for the characteristics of DVT among children with osteomyelitis will reduce delay to diagnostic ultrasound and improve anticoagulation management which must be carefully coordinated given the high rate of surgery of these children. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level II-prognostic, retrospective cohort comparison.

The impact of Staphylococcus aureus genomic variation on clinical phenotype of children with acute hematogenous osteomyelitis.

BACKGROUND: Children with acute hematogenous osteomyelitis (AHO) have a broad spectrum of illness ranging from mild to severe. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the impact of genomic variation of Staphylococcus aureus on clinical phenotype of affected children and determine which virulence genes correlate with severity of illness. METHODS: De novo whole genome sequencing was conducted for a strain of Community Acquired Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (CA-MRSA), using PacBio Hierarchical Genome Assembly Process (HGAP) from 6 Single Molecule Real Time (SMRT) Cells, as a reference for DNA library assembly of 71 Staphylococcus aureus isolates from children with AHO. Virulence gene annotation was based on exhaustive literature review and genomic data in NCBI for Staphylococcus aureus. Clinical phenotype was assessed using a validated severity score. Kruskal-Wallis rank sum test determined association between clinical severity and virulence gene presence using False Discovery Rate (FDR), significance <0.01. RESULTS: PacBio produced an assembled genome of 2,898,306 bp and 2054 Open Reading Frames (ORFs). Annotation confirmed 201 virulence genes. Statistical analysis of gene presence by clinical severity found 40 genes significantly associated with severity of illness (FDR ≤0.009). MRSA isolates encoded a significantly greater number of virulence genes than did MSSA (p < 0.0001). Phylogenetic analysis by maximum likelihood (PAML) demonstrated the relatedness of genomic distance to clinical phenotype. CONCLUSIONS: The Staphylococcus aureus genome contains virulence genes which are significantly associated with severity of illness in children with osteomyelitis. This study introduces a novel reference strain and detailed annotation of Staphylococcus aureus virulence genes. While this study does not address bacterial gene expression, a platform is created for future transcriptome investigations to elucidate the complex mechanisms involved in childhood osteomyelitis.

Acute Hematogenous Osteomyelitis in Children: Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Treatment.

Acute hematogenous osteomyelitis (AHO) in children is an ideal condition to study due to its representation of a wide spectrum of disorders that comprise pediatric musculoskeletal infection. Proper care for children with AHO is multidisciplinary and collaborative. AHO continues to present a significant clinical challenge due to evolving epidemiology and complex pathogenesis. A guideline-driven, multidisciplinary approach has been introduced and shown to effectively reduce hospital stay, improve the timing and selection of empirical antibiotic administration, reduce delay to initial MRI, reduce the rate of readmission, and shorten antibiotic duration.

Sequential Parenteral to Oral Clindamycin Dosing in Pediatric Musculoskeletal Infection: A Retrospective Review of 30 mg/kg/d Versus 40 mg/kg/d.

BACKGROUND: Children with musculoskeletal infection in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) prevalent communities are often treated with oral clindamycin. Current guidelines recommend approximately 40 mg/kg/d for MRSA infections. This study investigates the clinical practice of using 30 mg/kg/d of clindamycin as an alternative for outpatient dosing. METHODS: Children with musculoskeletal infection treated with outpatient clindamycin from 2009 to 2014 were studied by retrospective review. The amount of clindamycin administered was determined from dose, interval and duration of outpatient treatment. Hospital readmission, surgeries and sequelae were assessed. Severity of illness was determined for children with osteomyelitis. The readmission rate of 25 children treated with 40 mg/kg/d was compared with that of 190 children treated with 30 mg/kg/d. The reason for readmission was evaluated to consider whether antibiotic dosing strategy was a potential factor. RESULTS: Among 215 children studied, the average outpatient duration of treatment was 32.8 days. There was no significant difference in the rate of readmission between dosing cohorts. Severity of illness scores (0-10 scale) was significantly higher among readmitted children with osteomyelitis (mean 9.8 ± 0.4) than among those with osteomyelitis who were not readmitted (mean 2.9 ± 3.2), P = 0.001. Sequelae were more common in the high-dose group and were noted in 3 children (12%) in that cohort compared with 6 children (3.2%) in the low-dose cohort (P > 0.05). CONCLUSION: Oral dosing of 30 mg/kg/d was effective for musculoskeletal infection in children in an MRSA prevalent community. Illness severity appeared to have greater impact on readmission and sequelae than did antibiotic dosing.

The Clinical Usefulness of Polymerase Chain Reaction as a Supplemental Diagnostic Tool in the Evaluation and the Treatment of Children With Septic Arthritis.

INTRODUCTION: Culture-negative septic arthritis occurs frequently in children. The supplemental use of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) techniques improves the detection of bacteria in the joint fluid. This study evaluates the clinical utility of PCR at a tertiary pediatric medical center. METHODS: Children with septic arthritis were studied prospectively from 2012 to 2014. Culture results and clinical infection parameters were recorded. PCR was performed whenever sufficient fluid was available from the joint aspiration. A statistical comparison was made for the rates of identification of the causative organism by these methods. A subgroup analysis was performed to assess the correspondence of clinical and laboratory parameters with the results of joint fluid culture and PCR. RESULTS: Ninety-nine children with septic arthritis were enrolled consecutively. A broad range of parameter results was identified among these children with an average of 3.6 of 6 parameters per child that met thresholds of infection. Joint fluid cultures were positive in 34 of 97 (35.1%) children from whom they were sent. Among the 68 children from whom the material was sent for PCR, the result was positive in 32 (47.1%). The combination of blood culture, joint fluid culture, and PCR resulted in bacterial detection in 49 of 97 (50.5%) children. PCR improved the rate of detection of Kingella kingae markedly when compared with joint fluid culture. PCR results were available at an average of 14.6 days after the acquisition of joint fluid. 16S PCR results were reported at an average of 17.5 days, whereas Kingella PCR took 5.1 days. DISCUSSION: PCR provides supplemental information for diagnostic confirmation through an increased rate of detection of bacteria. The timing of results and the inability to provide antibiotic sensitivity are factors that limit its clinical usefulness currently.

Improved Magnetic Resonance Imaging Utilization for Children with Musculoskeletal Infection.

BACKGROUND: Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) with sedation is an important resource used to evaluate children with musculoskeletal infection. This study assesses the impact of multidisciplinary guidelines and continuous process improvement on MRI utilization at a tertiary pediatric medical center. METHODS: A multidisciplinary team developed a guideline for MRI with sedation, and it was implemented at our institution. Scan duration, anatomic regions imaged, sequences performed, timing of surgical intervention, length of hospital stay, and readmissions for these children were compared with these measures among a cohort of similar children who had been treated prior to guideline implementation. Comparative data were gathered for the subsequent cohort to determine any impact of the continued process improvement program on MRI utilization. Statistical comparison was performed to determine significant differences between groups. RESULTS: Children evaluated prior to the guideline implementation had 9.0 MRI sequences per scan, an MRI scan duration of 111.6 minutes, and a hospital stay of 7.5 days. In comparison, children in the initial MRI guideline cohort had 7.5 sequences per scan, a scan duration of 76.1 minutes, and a hospital stay of 5.4 days. Children in the subsequent guideline cohort had 6.5 sequences per scan, a scan duration of 56.3 minutes, and a hospital stay of 5.0 days. The rate of immediate surgical procedure under continued anesthesia was 16.7% prior to the guideline, 50.5% among children in the initial guideline cohort, and 64% among children in the subsequent guideline cohort. Differences between cohorts were significant (p < 0.0001). In aggregate, 264 hours of MRI scan time and 809 hospital bed-days were conserved for more than thirty months. CONCLUSIONS: This initiative promoted improvement in diagnostic efficiency, therapeutic consistency, and patient safety for children with musculoskeletal infection. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The findings of this study illustrate the beneficial impact of interdisciplinary coordination of care on clinical outcomes for children with musculoskeletal infection. Tangible improvements occurred for both length of stay and resource utilization.

Microbiological culture methods for pediatric musculoskeletal infection: a guideline for optimal use.

BACKGROUND: Culture results affect the diagnosis and treatment of children with musculoskeletal infection. To our knowledge, no previous large-scale study has assessed the relative value of culture methods employed during the evaluation of these conditions. The purpose of this study was to identify an optimal culture strategy for pediatric musculoskeletal infection. METHODS: Children with musculoskeletal infection were retrospectively studied to assess culture results from the infection site or blood; culture type, including aerobic, anaerobic, fungal, and acid-fast bacteria (AFB); antibiotic exposure history; and clinical history of children with positive culture results. RESULTS: We studied 869 children, including 353 with osteomyelitis, 199 with septic arthritis, forty-two with pyomyositis, and 275 with abscess. The 4537 cultures processed included 1303 aerobic, 903 anaerobic, 340 fungal, 289 AFB, and 1702 blood. Of 3004 specimens sent during initial work-up, positive results occurred in 677 of 1049 aerobic cultures (64.5%), 140 of 763 blood cultures (18.3%), eighteen of 722 anaerobic cultures (2.5%), five of 251 fungal cultures (2.0%), and two of 219 AFB cultures (0.9%). Staphylococcus aureus was the most common pathogen isolated, from 428 (50.7%) of 844 children for whom blood or infection-site culture material was sent (methicillin-resistant S. aureus, 252; and oxacillin-sensitive S. aureus, 176). Cultures were negative in 206 (29.0%) of the 710 children for whom culture material from the site of infection was sent. Children with true-positive anaerobic, fungal, or AFB cultures had a history of immunocompromise, penetrating inoculation, or failed primary treatment. Antibiotic exposure prior to culture-sample acquisition did not interfere with aerobic culture results from the site of infection. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that anaerobic, fungal, and AFB cultures should not be routinely performed during the initial evaluation of children with hematogenous musculoskeletal infection. These cultures should be performed for children with immunocompromise, clinical suspicion of penetrating inoculation, or failed primary treatment.

A proposed scoring system for assessment of severity of illness in pediatric acute hematogenous osteomyelitis using objective clinical and laboratory findings.

BACKGROUND: Severity of illness in children with acute hematogenous osteomyelitis (AHO) is variable, ranging from mild, requiring short-duration antibiotic therapy without surgery, to severe, requiring intensive care, multiple surgeries and prolonged hospitalization. This study evaluates severity of illness among children with AHO using clinical and laboratory findings. METHODS: Fifty-six children with AHO, consecutively treated in 2009, were retrospectively studied. Objective clinical, radiographic and laboratory parameters related to severity of illness were gathered for each child. A physician panel was assembled to rank order objective clinical parameters, review clinical data and classify each child as mild, moderate or severe. Statistically significant parameters correlated with length of hospitalization were utilized to devise a severity of illness score and applied to the cohort of children for internal validation. RESULTS: The physician panel had perfect or substantial agreement regarding 7 parameters (ICU admission, intubation, pulmonary involvement, venous thrombosis, multifocal infection, surgeries and febrile days on antibiotics). Parameters that significantly correlated with total length of stay included: C-reactive protein values at admission (P < 0.0001), 48 hours (P < 0.0001) and 96 hours (P < 0.0002); febrile days on antibiotics (P < 0.0001); admission respiratory rate (P = 0.023) and evidence of disseminated disease (P = 0.016). A scoring system, derived from selected parameters, significantly differentiated children with AHO on the basis of causative organism, intensive care admission, surgeries, length of hospitalization, complications and physician panel assessment. CONCLUSIONS: Severity of illness score for AHO, derived from preliminary clinical and laboratory findings, is useful stratifying children with this disease. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Prognostic Level II.

Management of the pediatric pulseless supracondylar humeral fracture: is vascular exploration necessary?

BACKGROUND: Radically different conclusions exist in the pediatric orthopaedic and vascular literature regarding the management of patients with a pink hand but no palpable radial pulse in association with a supracondylar humeral fracture. METHODS: One thousand two hundred and ninety-seven consecutive, operatively treated supracondylar humeral fractures in patients presenting to a level-I pediatric trauma center from January 2003 through December 2007 were studied retrospectively. Clinical records were reviewed to determine vascular and neurological examination findings, Gartland classification, timing of surgery, and postoperative complications. RESULTS: One thousand two hundred and sixty-six patients had a documented radial pulse examination at the time of arrival in the emergency room; fifty-four (4%) of those patients lacked a palpable radial pulse. All fifty-four patients had type-3 fractures. Five (9%) of the fifty-four patients underwent open exploration of vascular structures on the basis of clinical findings of a pale hand, sluggish capillary refill, and/or weak or no pulse detected with use of Doppler ultrasound after closed reduction and percutaneous pinning. All five underwent vascular surgery to restore blood flow (two primary repairs, three saphenous vein grafts). Twenty (37%) of the fifty-four patients had a pulse documented with use of Doppler ultrasound and a pink hand after closed reduction and percutaneous pinning, but the radial pulse remained nonpalpable. These patients were observed in the hospital for signs of ischemia; one of the twenty patients required vascular repair after developing a pale hand nine hours after closed reduction and percutaneous pinning, and the other nineteen patients were also observed while they were in the hospital, and they all regained a palpable pulse either prior to discharge or by the time of the first postoperative visit. When compared with the group of patients with type-3 fractures for whom data regarding nerve examination were available, patients with type-3 fractures who lacked a palpable radial pulse had a higher rate of nerve palsy postoperatively (31% versus 9%, p < 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: In this cohort, nearly 10% of patients who presented with a type-3 supracondylar humeral fracture and no palpable radial pulse underwent immediate vascular repair to restore blood flow following closed reduction and percutaneous pinning. However, in our series, the lack of a palpable radial pulse after closed reduction and percutaneous pinning was not an absolute indication to proceed with vascular exploration if clinical findings (i.e., Doppler signal and capillary refill) suggested that the limb was perfused. Careful inpatient monitoring of these patients postoperatively is mandatory to identify late-developing vascular compromise. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Prognostic level III. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

The impact of evidence-based clinical practice guidelines applied by a multidisciplinary team for the care of children with osteomyelitis.

BACKGROUND: Care of children with osteomyelitis requires multidisciplinary collaboration. This study evaluates the impact of evidence-based guidelines for the treatment of pediatric osteomyelitis when utilized by a multidisciplinary team. METHODS: Guidelines for pediatric osteomyelitis were developed and were implemented by a multidisciplinary team comprised of individuals from several hospital services, including orthopaedics, pediatrics, infectious disease, nursing, and social work, who met daily to conduct rounds and make treatment decisions. With use of retrospective review and statistical analysis, we compared children with osteomyelitis who had been managed at our institution from 2002 to 2004 (prior to the implementation of the guidelines), referred to as Group I in this study, with those who were managed in 2009 according to the guidelines, referred to as Group II. RESULTS: Two hundred and ten children in Group I were compared with sixty-one children in Group II. No significant differences between the two cohorts were noted for age, sex, incidence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection (18.1% in Group I compared with 26.2% in Group II), incidence of methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus infection (23.8% in Group I compared with 27.9% in Group II), bacteremia, or surgical procedures. Significant differences (p < 0.05) between cohorts were noted for each of the following: the delay in magnetic resonance imaging after admission (2.5 days in Group I compared with one day in Group II), the percentage of patients who had received clindamycin as the initial antibiotic (12.9% in Group I compared with 85.2% in Group II), the percentage of patients who had had a blood culture before antibiotic administration (79.5% in Group I compared with 91.8% in Group II), the percentage of patients who had had a culture of tissue from the infection site (62.9% in Group I compared with 78.7% in Group II), the percentage of patients in whom the infecting organism was identified on tissue or blood culture (60.0% in Group I compared with 73.8% in Group II), the number of antibiotic changes (2.0 changes in Group I compared with 1.4 changes in Group II), and the mean duration of oral antibiotic use (27.7 days in Group I compared with 43.7 days in Group II). When compared with Group I, Group II had clinically important trends of a shorter total length of hospital stay (12.8 days in Group I compared with 9.7 days in Group II; p = 0.054) and a lower hospital readmission rate (11.4% in Group I compared with 6.6% in Group II; p = 0.34). CONCLUSIONS: Evidence-based treatment guidelines applied by a multidisciplinary team resulted in a more efficient diagnostic workup, a higher rate of identifying the causative organism, and improved adherence to initial antibiotic recommendations with fewer antibiotic changes during treatment. Additionally, there were trends toward lower hospital readmission rates and a shorter length of hospitalization.

Pediatric musculoskeletal infection: trends and antibiotic recommendations.

In the past decade, the incidence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections in children has increased. This phenomenon has led to a rise in complex, deep infections involving the musculoskeletal system for which a comprehensive approach of evaluation and treatment has become necessary. Whenever possible, cultures should be obtained to guide specific antibiotic selection. The potential for infections involving multiple tissue locations within the same patient and the risk for complications such as deep vein thrombosis necessitate a thorough, often multidisciplinary, approach in the care of these children. MRI is valuable in defining the anatomic and spatial extent of infection as well as in guiding the decision and approach for surgery. Most patients have favorable outcomes with sequential parenteral to oral antibiotic therapy after adequate surgical débridement of the infection. Close outpatient follow-up is essential to ensure antibiotic compliance and to identify late consequences of the infection.

Comparison of bioabsorbable versus metallic implant fixation for physeal and epiphyseal fractures of the distal tibia.

BACKGROUND: Transepiphyseal screw fixation of displaced distal tibial epiphyseal fractures is the most common method of treatment for these intraarticular injuries. Recent literature indicates that retained transepiphyseal metallic screws cause an increase in ankle joint contact pressure, thus favoring screw removal. Our hypothesis is that bioabsorbable screw fixation is an alternative to metallic fixation, which offers similar results without the need for screw removal. METHODS: This is a retrospective review of distal tibial epiphyseal ankle fractures treated with screw fixation. Two groups, those treated with bioabsorbable screw fixation (group B, n = 24) and those with metallic screw fixation (group M, n = 26), were compared (t test) for differences in clinical and radiographic outcomes. RESULTS: Analysis of demographic data revealed no significant differences between groups for sex, ethnicity, age, and height. Group B was significantly heavier than group M (67.4 vs 55.6 kg; P = 0.0496). Each group had a similar number of Salter-Harris types III and IV medial malleolus fractures and transitional fracture types. There was no significant difference between groups in the time from injury to fixation or in operative time. Radiographically, there were no nonunions in either group, and at final follow-up, 1 patient in group B had distal tibial joint line irregularity versus 3 in group M. Clinically, there were no significant differences between groups in time to full weight bearing or time to full activities.There were fewer complications in group B. A single case of loss of reduction requiring revision fixation occurred in each group. There was one documented growth arrest in group M and 2 suspected growth arrests in each group. Two patients in group M were successfully treated for a superficial wound infection with oral antibiotics. Fourteen patients in group M underwent planned screw removal. CONCLUSIONS: Bioabsorbable screw fixation can be used for distal tibial epiphyseal fractures with no increase in operative time, nonunion rate, number of unplanned secondary surgeries, or other complications. The use of bioabsorbable screws eliminates the need for epiphyseal screw removal. A prospective randomized study is planned to eliminate the potential selection bias and to standardize clinical and radiographic follow-up. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III, case-control study.

The impact of the current epidemiology of pediatric musculoskeletal infection on evaluation and treatment guidelines.

BACKGROUND: Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus is thought to have led to an increase in the incidence of severe musculoskeletal infection in children. Our purpose was (1) to compare the current epidemiology of musculoskeletal infection with historical data at the same institution 20 years prior and (2) to evaluate the spectrum of the severity of this disease process within the current epidemiology. METHODS: Children with musculoskeletal infection, treated between January 2002 and December 2004, were studied retrospectively. Diagnoses of osteomyelitis, septic arthritis, pyomyositis, and abscess were established for each child based on overall clinical impression, laboratory indices, culture results, radiology studies, and intraoperative findings. Comparison was made with the experience reported at the same institution in 1982. Children within each diagnostic category were compared with respect to mean values of C-reactive protein and erythrocyte sedimentation rate at admission, number of surgical procedures, intensive care unit admissions, identification of deep venous thrombosis, and length of hospitalization. RESULTS: Five hundred fifty-four children were studied (osteomyelitis, n = 212; septic arthritis, n = 118; pyomyositis, n = 20; and deep abscess, n = 204). The annualized per capita incidence of osteomyelitis increased 2.8-fold, whereas that of septic arthritis was unchanged when compared with historical data from 20 years prior. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus was isolated as the causative organism in 30% of the children. We identified increasing severity of illness according to a hierarchy of tissue involvement (osteomyelitis > septic arthritis > pyomyositis > abscess) and according to the identification of contiguous infections within in each primary diagnostic category. CONCLUSIONS: The incidence of musculoskeletal infection appears to have increased within our community. We found that a more comprehensive diagnostic classification of this disease is useful in understanding the spectrum of the severity of illness and identifying those who require the greatest amount of resources. Magnetic resonance imaging is useful early in the diagnostic process to enable a more detailed disease classification and to expedite surgical decisions. The recognition of the incidence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus within our community has also led to a change in empirical antibiotic selection.

Deep venous thrombosis associated with osteomyelitis in children.

BACKGROUND: The association of deep venous thrombosis and deep musculoskeletal infection in children has been reported infrequently. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the characteristics of children with osteomyelitis in whom deep venous thrombosis developed and to compare them with those of children with osteomyelitis in whom deep venous thrombosis did not develop. METHODS: A retrospective review of the records of children who were managed at our institution because of a deep musculoskeletal infection between January 2002 and December 2004 identified 212 children with osteomyelitis involving the spine, pelvis, or extremities. Children in whom deep venous thrombosis developed were compared with those in whom it did not develop with respect to age, diagnosis, causative organism, duration of symptoms prior to admission, laboratory values at the time of admission, surgical procedures, and required length of hospitalization. RESULTS: Eleven children with osteomyelitis and deep venous thrombosis were identified. The mean C-reactive protein level was 16.9 mg/dL for the group of eleven patients with osteomyelitis in whom deep venous thrombosis developed, compared with only 6.8 mg/dL for the group of 201 patients with osteomyelitis in whom deep venous thrombosis did not develop (p=0.0044). Staphylococcus aureus was the causative organism of infection in all eleven children with deep venous thrombosis and in ninety-three (46%) of the 201 children without deep venous thrombosis. Methicillin-resistant strains of Staphylococcus aureus were identified in eight of the eleven children with deep venous thrombosis and in only forty-nine of the 201 children without deep venous thrombosis. The children with osteomyelitis and deep venous thrombosis were older, had a longer duration of hospitalization, had more admissions to the intensive care unit, and required more surgical procedures than those with osteomyelitis but without deep venous thrombosis. CONCLUSIONS: Deep venous thrombosis in association with musculoskeletal infection is more common in children over the age of eight years who have osteomyelitis caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and who present with a C-reactive protein level of >6 mg/dL. Diagnostic venous imaging studies should be performed to assess for the presence of deep venous thrombosis in children with osteomyelitis, especially those who have these risk factors.