The effects of compound stimulus extinction and inhibition of noradrenaline reuptake on the renewal of alcohol seeking.

Alcohol-related stimuli can trigger relapse of alcohol-seeking behaviors even after extended periods of abstinence. Extinction of such stimuli can reduce their impact on relapse; however, the expression of extinction can be disrupted when testing occurs outside the context where extinction learning took place, an effect termed renewal. Behavioral and pharmacological methods have recently been shown to augment extinction learning; yet, it is not known whether the improved expression of extinction following these treatments remains context-dependent. Here we examined whether two methods, compound-stimulus extinction and treatment with the noradrenaline reuptake inhibitor atomoxetine, would reduce the vulnerability of extinction to a change in context. Following alcohol self-administration, responding was extinguished in a distinct context. After initial extinction, further extinction was given to a target stimulus presented in compound with another alcohol-predictive stimulus intended to augment prediction error (Experiment 1) or after a systemic injection of atomoxetine (1.0 mg kg(-1); Experiment 2). A stimulus extinguished as part of a compound elicited less responding than a stimulus receiving equal extinction alone regardless of whether animals were tested in the training or extinction context; however, reliable renewal was not observed in this paradigm. Importantly, atomoxetine enhanced extinction relative to controls even in the presence of a reliable renewal effect. Thus, extinction of alcohol-seeking behavior can be improved by extinguishing multiple alcohol-predictive stimuli or enhancing noradrenaline neurotransmission during extinction training. Importantly, both methods improve extinction even when the context is changed between extinction training and test, and thus could be utilized to enhance the outcome of extinction-based treatments for alcohol-use disorders.

The role of the nucleus accumbens in instrumental conditioning: Evidence of a functional dissociation between accumbens core and shell.

In three experiments we examined the effect of bilateral excitotoxic lesions of the nucleus accumbens core or shell subregions on instrumental performance, outcome devaluation, degradation of the instrumental contingency, Pavlovian conditioning, and Pavlovian-instrumental transfer. Rats were food deprived and trained to press two levers, one delivering food pellets and the other a sucrose solution. All animals acquired the lever-press response although the rate of acquisition and overall response rates in core-lesioned animals were depressed relative to that in the shell- or sham-lesioned animals. Furthermore, in shell- and sham-lesioned rats, post-training devaluation of one of the two outcomes using a specific satiety procedure produced a selective reduction in performance on the lever that, in training, delivered the prefed outcome. In contrast, the core-lesioned rats failed to show a selective devaluation effect and reduced responding on both levers. Subsequent tests revealed that these effects of core lesions were not caused by an impairment in their ability to recall the devalued outcome, to discriminate the two outcomes, or to encode the instrumental action-outcome contingencies to which they were exposed. Additionally, the core lesions did not have any marked effect on Pavlovian conditioning or on Pavlovian-instrumental transfer. Importantly, although shell-lesioned rats showed no deficit in any test of instrumental conditioning or in Pavlovian conditioning, they failed to show any positive transfer in the Pavlovian-instrumental transfer test. This double dissociation suggests that nucleus accumbens core and shell differentially mediate the impact of instrumental and Pavlovian incentive processes, respectively, on instrumental performance.

The role of the hippocampus in instrumental conditioning.

Considerable evidence suggests that, in instrumental conditioning, rats can encode both the specific action-outcome associations to which they are exposed and the degree to which an action is causal in producing its associated outcome. Three experiments assessed the involvement of the hippocampus in encoding these aspects of instrumental learning. In each study, rats with electrolytic lesions of the dorsal hippocampus and sham-lesioned controls were trained while hungry to press two levers, each of which delivered a unique food outcome. Experiments 1A and 1B used an outcome devaluation procedure to assess the effects of the lesion on encoding the action-outcome relationship. After training, one of the two outcomes was devalued using a specific satiety procedure, after which performance on the two levers was assessed in a choice extinction test. The lesion had no detectable effect on either the acquisition of instrumental performance or on the rats' sensitivity to outcome devaluation; lesion and sham groups both reduced responding on the lever associated with the devalued outcome compared with the other lever. In experiment 2, the sensitivity of hippocampal rats to the causal efficacy of their actions was assessed by selectively degrading the contingency between one of the actions and its associated outcome. Whereas sham rats selectively reduced performance on the lever for which the action-outcome contingency had been degraded, hippocampal rats did not. These results suggest that, in instrumental conditioning, lesions of the dorsal hippocampus selectively impair the ability of rats to represent the causal relationship between an action and its consequences.