Re-emergence of rabies virus maintained by canid populations in Paraguay.

Paraguay has registered no human cases of rabies since 2004, and the last case in dogs, reported in 2009, was due to a variant maintained in the common vampire bat "Desmodus rotundus". In 2014, a dog was diagnosed as positive for rabies with aggression towards a boy and all required measures of control were successfully adopted. Epidemiological investigation revealed that the dog was not vaccinated and had been attacked by a crab-eating fox, "zorro" (Cerdocyon thous). The sample was diagnosed by the Official Veterinary Service of the Country and sent to the Center on Rabies Research from the University of São Paulo, Brazil, for antigenic and genetic characterization. A second sample from a dog positive for rabies in the same region in 2015 and 11 samples from a rabies outbreak from Asuncion in 1996 were also characterized. The antigenic profile of the samples, AgV2, was compatible with one of the variants maintained by dogs in Latin America. In genetic characterization, the samples segregated in the canine (domestic and wild species)-related group in an independent subgroup that also included samples from Argentina. These results and the epidemiology of the case indicate that even with the control of rabies in domestic animals, the virus can still circulate in wildlife and may be transmitted to domestic animals and humans, demonstrating the importance of continuous and improved surveillance and control of rabies, including in wild species, to prevent outbreaks in controlled areas.

Canine rabies elimination: governance principles.

Rabies is still one of the deadliest diseases known to exist in the 21st century, and yet it remains irresponsibly neglected and underestimated. In light of this, this paper discusses the principles of governance as they relate to rabies control, using examples of global intersectoral coordination programmes for the control of canine rabies and for the elimination of human rabies transmitted by dogs. The first of these programmes was the Meeting of Rabies Program Directors of the Americas (REDIPRA), which has served as a model of intersectoral success for rabies elimination in other regions. Examples of intersectoral cooperation on several continents, mainly between the health and agriculture sectors, are detailed to discuss various methods of achieving better technical cooperation. These cooperation programmes follow the 'coalition model' set by REDIPRA. They bring together various actors, such as governments, non-governmental organisations, the private sector, the science and research community, international cooperation agencies and donors, under a common umbrella for advocacy and for the implementation of local projects for the elimination of human rabies transmitted by dogs. Networking is the main intersectoral governance mechanism presented in this review.

Bien qu'elle soit connue pour être l'une des maladies faisant le plus de victimes au xxie siècle, la rage demeure fortement négligée et sous-estimée, traduisant un déficit de responsabilité en la matière. À la lumière de cet état de fait, les auteurs examinent les principes de gouvernance applicables à la lutte contre la rage, en prenant pour exemples les programmes mondiaux destinés à assurer la coordination intersectorielle de la lutte contre la rage canine et de l'élimination de la rage humaine transmise par les chiens. Le premier des programmes examinés est celui mis en oeuvre par les Réunions des Directeurs des Programmes nationaux de contrôle de la rage en Amérique latine (REDIPRA), qui a servi de modèle dans d'autres régions du monde en tant qu'exemple de coopération intersectorielle réussie pour l'élimination de la rage. Les auteurs examinent en détail quelques exemples de coopération intersectorielle dans différents continents et portant pour la plupart sur les secteurs de la santé et de l'agriculture, ce qui les conduit à mettre en avant les méthodes permettant d'améliorer la qualité de la coopération technique. Ces programmes de coopération s'inspirent du « modèle de coalition ¼ inauguré par les REDIPRA. Ils réunissent plusieurs acteurs tels que les gouvernements, les organisations non gouvernementales, le secteur privé, la communauté des chercheurs et des scientifiques, les agences de coopération internationale et les donateurs, autour d'un objectif commun axé sur la promotion et la mise en oeuvre des projets locaux d'élimination de la rage humaine transmise par les chiens. Le travail en réseaux est le principal mécanisme de gouvernance intersectorielle présenté dans cette analyse.

La rabia es todavía una de las enfermedades más mortíferas que se conocen y aún subsisten en el siglo XXI, pese a lo cual sigue estando, de forma harto irresponsable, desatendida y subestimada. Ante tal realidad, los autores exponen los principios de la gobernanza en relación con la lucha antirrábica, ofreciendo ejemplos de programas de coordinación intersectorial a escala mundial para combatir la rabia canina y eliminar la rabia humana transmitida por perros. El primero de tales programas fue la «Reunión de directores de programas contra la rabia de las Américas¼ (REDIPRA), que después ha servido de modelo de labor intersectorial eficaz para la eliminación de la rabia en otras regiones. Tras describir en detalle ejemplos de cooperación intersectorial en varios continentes, básicamente entre los sectores de la agricultura y la salud, los autores examinan varios métodos para dotar de más eficacia a la cooperación técnica. Estos programas de cooperación siguen el «modelo de coalición¼ establecido por la REDIPRA: se trata de federar a distintos interlocutores (gobiernos, organizaciones no gubernamentales, entidades del sector privado, círculos científicos y de investigación, organismos de cooperación internacional, donantes, etc.) en torno a un designio común de sensibilización y aplicación de proyectos locales para eliminar la rabia humana transmitida por perros. El trabajo en red es el principal mecanismo de gobernanza intersectorial que presentan los autores en estas líneas.

Current Status and Future Prospects to Achieve Foot-and-Mouth Disease Eradication in South America.

South America has a favourable position with respect to foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) compared with other FMD-affected regions due to the elimination of endemic clinical presentation of the disease. South America has reached the final stage of control and aims to eradicate the disease in the region under the provisions of the Hemispheric Program for the Eradication of FMD 2011-2020 (PHEFA). This programme aims at bringing eradication to completion, thereby eliminating the pool of foot-and-mouth disease genotypes active in South America. This plan includes a regional political agreement that provides strategies and technical guidelines for the eradication of foot-and-mouth disease from South America. It incorporates knowledge and experience regarding the disease's history and its connection with the different production systems, animal movement and trade. The Pan American Foot and Mouth Disease Center has led the control and eradication programmes, providing the framework for designing national and subregional programmes that have led to significant progress in controlling the disease in South America. The current situation is the result of several factors, including the proper implementation of a national control programmes, good veterinary infrastructure in most countries and public-private participation in the process of eradicating the disease. Notwithstanding the favourable health status, there are significant challenges for the goal of eradication. At this stage, South American countries should enhance their surveillance strategies particularly through the use of target or risk-based surveys that contribute to increase the degree of sensitivity in the search for viral circulation in the context of absence of clinical occurrence of FMD.

Epidemiology of selected mycobacteria that infect humans and other animals.

This paper provides a summary of salient clinical and epidemiological features of selected mycobacterial diseases that are common to humans and other animals. Clinical and diagnostic issues are discussed and related to estimates of the incidence and prevalence of these diseases among humans. Source of infection, route of transmission and control measures are also presented. The mycobacteria discussed in this paper are Mycobacterium bovis, M. ulcerans, M. leprae and M. avium complex, although this is by no means a complete list of the mycobacteria common to humans and other animals. Certain generalities can be made regarding these species of mycobacteria and their occurrence in humans and other animals; firstly, current understanding of the epidemiology and control of many of the resultant diseases is incomplete; secondly, environmental sources other than animal reservoirs may play a role in transmission (with M. leprae perhaps being the exception); and thirdly, the incidence and prevalence of these diseases in many countries of the world are unclear, principally because of the complexity of diagnosis and lack of reporting systems.

World Health Organization activities on anthrax surveillance and control.

The achievements of a World Health Organization Anthrax Working Group, established in 1990, have been the production of two editions of guidelines on anthrax surveillance and control and the formulation of templates to assist countries in the construction of their surveillance and control programmes. The latter was made possible by the active participation of the Department of Animal Production and Health, Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Fisheries, Zambia and the Livestock Development Programme, Mongu, Western Province, Zambia in a model country programme designed by the Working Group for the purpose. This paper elaborates on these achievements, particularly the lessons learned from the experience of Western Province, Zambia.

Zoonotic tuberculosis due to Mycobacterium bovis in developing countries.

The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that human tuberculosis (TB) incidence and deaths for 1990 to 1999 will be 88 million and 30 million, respectively, with most cases in developing countries. Zoonotic TB (caused by Mycobacterium bovis) is present in animals in most developing countries where surveillance and control activities are often inadequate or unavailable; therefore, many epidemiologic and public health aspects of infection remain largely unknown. We review available information on zoonotic TB in developing countries, analyze risk factors that may play a role in the disease, review recent WHO activities, and recommend actions to assess the magnitude of the problem and control the disease in humans and animals.

The zoonotic importance of Mycobacterium bovis.

The zoonotic importance of Mycobacterium bovis has been the subject of renewed interest in the wake of the increasing incidence of tuberculosis in the human population. This paper considers some of the conditions under which transmission of M. bovis from animals to humans occurs and reviews current information on the global distribution of the disease. The paper highlights the particular threat posed by this zoonotic disease in developing countries and lists the veterinary and human public health measures that need to be adopted if the disease is to be contained. The association of tuberculosis with malnutrition and poverty has long been recognized and the need to address these basic issues are as crucial as specific measures against the disease itself.

Epidemiology of Mycobacterium bovis infection in animals and humans, with particular reference to Africa.

The epidemiology of Mycobacterium bovis infection in animals and humans is described, together with a review of available reports on the distribution and prevalence of this mycobacteriosis in Africa. The significance of these reports is considered, with particular emphasis on the potential zoonotic importance of bovine tuberculosis as a cause for public health concern in Africa. Published data describing tuberculosis in Europe in the 1930s and 1940s show that bovine tuberculosis was considered to be a significant zoonosis: M. bovis was responsible for more than 50% of cervical lymphadenitis cases in children. Despite the paucity of information on M. bovis infection in Africa, there is sufficient evidence to suggest that it is widely distributed and is found at significantly high prevalence in some populations of animals. Some epidemiological conditions for the spread of M. bovis infection between animals and humans are very similar in Africa today to those in Europe in the 1930s, with the added and potent impact of the epidemic of human immunodeficiency virus infection. The public health threat of tuberculosis in Africa requires urgent investigation through collaborative veterinary/medical research programmes.