A continuous mapping between space and valence with left- and right-handers.

In this research, we examined whether emotional valence could correspond to a continuous lateral bias in space, according to a mental metaphor that establishes the mapping between a concrete domain (space) and an abstract one (valence). Because acting with one's dominant hand is associated with fluency and positive valence (the bodily specificity hypothesis, or BSH), we asked strong right- and left-handers to perform two spatial location tasks using emotional faces with seven levels of valence. We hypothesized and showed through two studies that, according to the BSH, extreme valenced stimuli (as compared to moderate and weak ones) would be located more at the extremity of a horizontal line, according to the correspondences between handedness and the different valences of the stimuli. This research establishes that spatial and continuous mapping of emotions was obtained while controlling for motivational direction.

Motor and cognitive integration: effect of bilateral behaviors on judgment.

Performing approach vs. avoidance behaviors (arm flexion vs. arm extension) on the one hand, and lateralized peripheral activations (left side vs. right side) of the motivational systems of approach vs. avoidance, on the other hand, have been shown to impact on cognitive functioning (Cretenet, & Dru, 2009), mainly in judgment tasks. When a unilateral motor congruent behavior; that is, a behavior that activates the same motivational system (e.g., flexion of the right arm) was performed during a judgment task, participants' use of complex, interactive information integration rules was facilitated. No effect was, however, found when simpler, additive rules were involved (Mullet, Cretenet, & Dru, 2014). Three experiments are reported here that examined the effect of bilateral motor behaviors (e.g., flexion of the right arm and extension of the left arm) on the implementation of information integration rules. In Studies 1 and 2, two judgment tasks similar to the ones used by Mullet et al. (2014) were used: (a) a complex task in which participants judged a person's attractiveness from personality information, and (b) a simpler task in which they attributed blame according to bad deeds. It was found that similar motor behaviors performed by the two arms (e.g., flexion of both arms), in contrast to dissimilar ones, facilitated the use of complex, interactive information integration rules. No effect was found in the case of simpler integration rules. In Study 3, these results were replicated in a judgment task in which the complexity of the integration rule varied depending on the instructions given. Overall, when bilateral motor behaviors were performed during judgment, facilitation in the use of complex integration rules no longer depended on motivational congruence as in the case of unilateral motor behavior. It depended on symmetry/similarity of behaviors.

Motor influences on judgment: Motor and cognitive integration.

Performing motor behaviours (arm flexion vs. extension) that correspond also to lateralized peripheral activations (left vs. right side) of the motivational systems of approach versus avoidance have been previously shown to impact cognitive performance and judgment. Three experiments are reported that examined the combined effect of these variables, as a kind of motor integration, on the implementation of information integration rules in various judgment tasks: judging of a person's attractiveness from personality information, judging of the severity of health risk from alcohol and tobacco intake, and attributing blame to a perpetrator from information as to intent and severity of harm done. It was found that the congruence between these motivational activations consistently influenced the use of interactive information integration rules, compared to additive ones. This set of findings showed that cognitive rules might also be embodied. Motor integration affects cognitive integration in judgment.

Vertical metaphor with motion and judgment: a valenced congruency effect with fluency.

Following metaphorical theories of affect, several research studies have shown that the spatial cues along a vertical dimension are useful in qualifying emotional experience (HAPPINESS is UP, SADNESS is DOWN). Three experiments were conducted to examine the role of vertical motion in affective judgment. They showed that positive stimuli moving UPWARD were evaluated more positively than those moving DOWNWARD, whereas negative stimuli moving DOWNWARD were evaluated as less negative than those moving UPWARD. They showed a valenced congruency effect, but an alternative hypothesis in terms of MORE is UP and LESS is DOWN was also examined. Finally, fluency mechanisms were investigated to confirm that relationships between affect and verticality were in accordance with a valenced congruency effect.

Influence of bilateral motor behaviors on flexible functioning: an embodied perspective.

To examine the influence of bilateral motor behaviors on flexibility performance, two studies were conducted. Previous research has shown that when performing unilateral motor behavior that activates the affective and motivational systems of approach versus avoidance (arm flexion vs. extension), it is the congruence between laterality and motor activation that determines flexibility-rigidity functioning (Cretenet & Dru, 2009). When bilateral motor behaviors were performed, a mechanism of embodiment was revealed. It showed that the flexibility scores were determined by the match between the respective qualities of congruence of each of the unilateral motor behaviors performed. These results bring to light an overall embodied mechanism associated with the compatibility of the cognitive impact(s) of each motor behavior performed.

Performing lateralized approach and avoidance behaviors: effects on perceptual, affective and confidence judgments.

In recent work, we showed that the judgment of affective stimuli is influenced by the degree of congruence between apparently innate hemispheric dispositions (left hemisphere positive and approach, right hemisphere negative and avoidance), and the type of movement produced by the contralateral arm (flexion-approach; extension-avoidance). Incongruent movements (e.g., right arm extension) were associated with attenuation of affective valuations. In the present study, we replicated these results. We also assessed confidence in judgments as a function of stimulus valence and congruence and determined that confidence is maximal with congruent movements and highly positive or negative stimuli, suggesting that congruence effects on affective valuation could be mediated by confidence effects. However, in a second experiment, involving judgments regarding segmented lines, congruence effects were observed only for bisected lines, for which confidence was lowest. Thus, confidence does not provide a unifying explanation for congruence effects in the performance of these two tasks.

Influence of peripheral and motivational cues on rigid-flexible functioning: Perceptual, behavioral, and cognitive aspects.

Recent research has shown that performing approach versus avoidance behaviors (arm flexion vs. extension) effectively influences cognitive functioning. In another area, lateralized peripheral activations (left vs. right side) of the motivational systems of approach versus avoidance were linked to various performances in cognitive tasks. By combining these 2 avenues of research, the influence of motor behaviors on flexible thinking was examined through the use of lateralized approach or/and avoidance behaviors. In 5 experiments reported in this article, a combination of the laterality and arm flexion versus extension variables successfully determined flexibility-rigidity functioning, consistent with the motor congruence hypothesis (J. Cretenet & V. Dru, 2004). Through these experiments, this result has been replicated with perceptual, behavioral, and cognitive aspects of flexibility, contributing to a better understanding of the relationships between bodily components, affect, and cognition.

Influence of unilateral motor behaviors on the judgment of valenced stimuli.

Two experiments were conducted so as to examine how different motor activations (unilateral contraction and extension-flexion paradigms) of the motivational systems of approach and avoidance influenced participants' evaluations of valenced stimuli (figurative expressions and everyday life pictures). The results of the first Study (Study 1) showed that a motor congruence model was operative when processing positive facial expressions, this phenomenon was reversed, however, when negative faces were processed. This occurrence disappeared when weaker negative or positive faces were evaluated. These results were replicated in Study 2 with the use of valenced pictures taken from the International Affective Picture System (IAPS). The overall results were analyzed as a combination of conceptual-motor compatibility and motor congruence models throwing new light on the influence of motor behaviors on judgments.

A neurobehavioral investigation into judgmental processes: effect of bilateral motor behaviors.

Two experiments were conducted in order to examine how different bilateral motor activations of the approach and avoidance motivational systems influenced participants' evaluations of valenced stimuli (figurative expressions and pictures of everyday situations). The first Study (Study 1) showed that participants judged valenced expressions according to the motor congruence model put forward by Cretenet and Dru (2004). This may depend on the compatibility of the valenced stimuli with the congruency of the bilateral motor behaviors that involved two unilateral motor behaviors that are congruent to each other. These results were duplicated in Study 2 with the use of valenced pictures taken from the International Affective Picture System. The overall results shed new light on the influence of motor behaviors on judgments, by determining the motor system as operative in evaluative mechanisms, and not merely a simple executive function of higher cognitive processes.

Influence of bilateral motor actions on judgements: additional evidence for the motor congruence hypothesis.

One experiment was conducted to examine the influence of bilateral motor actions involving two parameters of movement (flexion vs extension of the arm and laterality as bodily activation of different motivational systems) on judgements. Arm flexion or unilateral right contraction (involving the positive and approach motivational system) has been shown to determine positive evaluations, whereas arm extension or unilateral left contraction (involving the negative and withdrawal motivational system) has led to negative evaluations. Participants (N = 72) had to evaluate neutral Chinese ideographs after performing one of four combined bilateral motor actions (right flexion/left extension, bilateral flexion, bilateral extension, and left flexion/right extension). Results showed that bilateral congruent motor action (right flexion/left extension as two activations of the positive or approach motivational system) and bilateral non-congruent motor action (left flexion/right extension as two activations of the negative or withdrawal motivational system) led respectively to positive and negative judgements, whereas bilateral flexion and bilateral extension determined neutral judgements. These results help understanding of how the motor system operates to process affective cues.

The influence of unilateral and bilateral arm flexion versus extension on judgments: an exploratory case of motor congruence.

Two experiments were conducted to examine how activation of the motivational systems of approach and withdrawal (arm flexion vs. extension) through 2 different bodily mechanisms (right arm vs. left arm) influenced participants' evaluations of neutral Chinese ideographs. Study 1 found that unilateral flexion on the right side and unilateral extension on the left side led to more positive evaluations than unilateral flexion on the left side and unilateral extension on the right side. Using bilateral movements, Study 2 found that simultaneous performance of a right-arm flexion and a left-arm extension led to more positive evaluations than a left-arm flexion and a right-arm extension. A motor congruence hypothesis was offered to account for these findings.