Trolley dilemma in the sky: Context matters when civilians and cadets make remotely piloted aircraft decisions.

Crews operating remotely piloted aircrafts (RPAs) in military operations may be among the few that truly experience tragic dilemmas similar to the famous Trolley Problem. In order to analyze decision-making and emotional conflict of RPA operators within Trolley-Problem-like dilemma situations, we created an RPA simulation that varied mission contexts (firefighter, military and surveillance as a control condition) and the social "value" of a potential victim. We found that participants (Air Force cadets and civilian students) were less likely to make the common utilitarian choice (sacrificing one to save five), when the value of the one increased, especially in the military context. However, in the firefighter context, this decision pattern was much less pronounced. The results demonstrate behavioral and justification differences when people are more invested in a particular context despite ostensibly similar dilemmas.

Anthropomorphism of Robots: Study of Appearance and Agency.

BACKGROUND: As the prevalence of robots increases each year, understanding how we anthropomorphize and interact with them is extremely important. The three-factor theory of anthropomorphism, called the Sociality, Effectance, Elicited agent Knowledge model, guided this study. As anthropomorphism involves a person making attributions of human likeness toward a nonhuman object, this model implies that anthropomorphism can be influenced either by factors related to the person or the object. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to explore factors influencing the anthropomorphism of robots, specifically the robot's appearance (humanoid vs nonhumanoid) and agency (autonomous vs nonautonomous). We expected a humanoid robot would be anthropomorphized to a greater extent than one that was nonhumanoid. In addition, we expected that inducing an agency belief to the effect that a robot was making its own decisions would increase anthropomorphism compared with a nonagency belief that the robot was being remotely controlled by a human. We also sought to identify any role gender might play in anthropomorphizing the robot. METHODS: Participants (N=99) were primed for agency or nonagency belief conditions and then saw a brief video depicting either a humanoid or nonhumanoid robot interacting with a confederate. After viewing the video, they completed 4 measures: perception to humanoid robots scale (PERNOD), the Epley anthropomorphic adjectives measure, the Fussel anthropomorphic adjective checklist, and the Anthropomorphic Tendencies Scale (ATS). RESULTS: Findings with the PERNOD scale indicated subjects did perceive the 2 robots differently, F6,86=6.59, P<.001, which means the appearance manipulation was effective. Results with the Epley adjectives indicated that participants were more willing to attribute humanlike behavioral traits to the nonhumanoid rather than the humanoid robot, F1,91=5.76, P=.02. The Fussel adjective checklist results showed that subjects were more willing to attribute humanlike social qualities to the remote controlled than the autonomous robot, F1,91=5.30, P=.02. Finally, the ATS revealed the only gender effects in this study, with females reporting more endorsement of anthropomorphism for pets (P=.02) and less for showing negative emotions toward anthropomorphized objects (P<.001) if they had witnessed the humanoid rather than the nonhumanoid robot. CONCLUSIONS: Contrary to our expectations, participants were less willing to make humanlike attributions toward a robot when its morphology was more humanlike and were more willing to make those attributions when they were told that the robot was being remotely controlled by a person rather than acting on its own. In retrospect, these outcomes may have occurred because the humanoid robot used here had a smaller overall stature than the nonhumanoid robot, perhaps making it seem more toylike and because subjects made attributions toward the person behind the remote-controlled robot rather than toward the robot itself.

Error augmentation feedback for lateral weight shifting.

This study examines the effect of error augmentation of center of pressure (CoP) visual feedback on the performance of a lateral weight shifting task. Error augmentation emphasizes deviations from a standard CoP trajectory generated from existing data of over 2000 weight shifts collected with young, healthy subjects. Thirty-six subjects completed nine lateral weight shifting sessions, of which four were training sessions between each of the five testing sessions. Half of the subjects received error augmentation feedback during the training sessions, while the other half received the unaltered, control feedback. The change in visual feedback did not affect the final steady state weight shifting performance. Instead, error augmentation feedback was found to drive subjects to their steady-state performance sooner than unaltered visual feedback. The emphasis on deviations from the standard trajectory with error augmentation appears to lead to reduced variation in shifting. This finding may be useful in generating novel therapies that improve the efficiency of balance rehabilitation.

Effects of Filtering the Center of Pressure Feedback Provided in Visually Guided Mediolateral Weight Shifting.

Thirty healthy adults completed a mediolateral weight-shifting balance task in which they were instructed to shift their weight to visually displayed target regions. A model-based filter and three different moving average filters employing 10, 34, and 58 samples were applied to the center of pressure visual feedback that guided the activity. The effects of filter selection on both the displayed feedback and the shift performance were examined in terms of shift time and non-minimum phase behavior. Shift time relates to feedback delay and shift speed, whereas non-minimum phase behavior relates to the force applied in shift initiation. Results indicated that increasing the number of samples in moving average filters (indicative of stronger filtering) significantly increases shift speed and shift initiation force. These effects indicate that careful selection and documentation of data filtering is warranted in future work and suggest opportunities for strategic filtering of visual feedback in clinical weight-shifting balance activities in order to improve outcomes based on such feedback.

Effect of Wii-based balance training on corticomotor excitability post stroke.

The objective was to examine the effectiveness of a 3-week balance training program using the Nintendo Wii Fit gaming system (Nintendo Wii Sports, Nintendo, Redmond, WA) on lower limb corticomotor excitability and other clinical measures in chronic stroke survivors. Ten individuals diagnosed with ischemic stroke with residual hemiparesis received balance training using the Wii Fit for 60 min/day, three times/week, for three weeks. At the end of training, an increase in interhemispheric symmetry of corticomotor excitability of the tibialis anterior muscle representations was noted (n = 9). Participants also showed improvements in reaction time, time to perform the Dual Timed-Up-and-Go test, and balance confidence. The training-induced balance in corticomotor excitability suggests that this Wii-based balance training paradigm has the potential to influence neural plasticity and thereby functional recovery.

Brief Report: A Pilot Summer Robotics Camp to Reduce Social Anxiety and Improve Social/Vocational Skills in Adolescents with ASD.

This pilot study evaluated a novel intervention designed to reduce social anxiety and improve social/vocational skills for adolescents with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The intervention utilized a shared interest in robotics among participants to facilitate natural social interaction between individuals with ASD and typically developing (TD) peers. Eight individuals with ASD and eight TD peers ages 12-17 participated in a weeklong robotics camp, during which they learned robotic facts, actively programmed an interactive robot, and learned "career" skills. The ASD group showed a significant decrease in social anxiety and both groups showed an increase in robotics knowledge, although neither group showed a significant increase in social skills. These initial findings suggest that this approach is promising and warrants further study.

Psychophysiological arousal at encoding leads to reduced reactivity but enhanced emotional memory following sleep.

While sleep's role in emotional memory processing is gaining increasing support, its effect on emotion regulation remains equivocal. Moreover, little is known about the link between emotional reactivity at the time of encoding and subsequent sleep-based emotional memory consolidation. This study examined whether sleep would potentiate, protect, or depotentiate measures of heart rate and skin conductance in response to scenes containing emotional and neutral objects, and assessed how these measures of reactivity would predict subsequent memory for the objects across delays of sleep and wake. Heart rate deceleration (HRD) and skin conductance response (SCR) data were collected at encoding and recognition. Although HRD and SCR reactivity to objects were depotentiated after a sleep-filled delay, they remained unchanged after a delay containing wakefulness. Moreover, increased arousal responses to negative scenes at encoding as measured by HRD and SCR responses were positively correlated with subsequent memory for the negative objects of scenes, but only in the sleep group. This suggests that larger reactions to negative images at the time of encoding set the stage for the preferential consolidation of these images during a night of sleep. Although arousal responses are often thought to account for emotional enhancement in long-term memory, these findings suggest that both an arousal response at encoding and a subsequent period of sleep are needed to optimize selective emotional memory consolidation.

Relative efficacy of various strategies for visual feedback in standing balance activities.

Seventy-nine young, healthy adults were led through static balance and weight-shifting activities in order to study the effects of visual feedback on balance. Based on their performance, the relative effects of various feedback properties were analyzed: (1) arrangement [direct center of pressure (CoP) vs. lateral weight distribution feedback], (2) numbers (presence vs. absence of numeric feedback), and (3) dimensionality (1D vs. 2D CoP information). In the static balance activity, subjects were instructed to maintain equal weight across both feet; in the dynamic weight-shifting activity, subjects were instructed to shift their weight to each displayed target location. For static balance, lateral symmetry and sway were measured by classical parameters using CoP, center of gravity (CoG), and the difference between the two (CoP-CoG). Weight-shifting balance performance was measured using the time required to shift between target CoP positions. Results indicated that feedback arrangement had a significant effect on static sway and dynamic weight shifting, with direct CoP feedback resulting in better balance performance than lateral weight distribution. Also, numbers had a significant effect on static sway, reducing lateral sway compared to feedback without numbers. Finally, 2D CoP feedback resulted in faster performance than 1D CoP feedback in dynamic weight shifting. These results show that altering different properties of visual feedback can have significant effects on resulting balance performance; therefore, proper selection of visual feedback strategy needs to take these effects into consideration.

Semantic and affective salience: the role of meaning and preference in attentional capture and disengagement.

Emotion appears to have a substantial impact on a wide variety of attentional functions. However, stimuli that elicit affective responses also tend to be meaningful. Here we attempted to disentangle the effects of meaning from the effects of affect on attentional capture by irrelevant distractors. Experiment 1 used a previously unfamiliar distractor stimulus, and manipulated the amount of knowledge provided to observers about the distractor. The results suggested that increases in meaning can reduce attentional capture. Experiments 2 and 3 used both familiar and unfamiliar symbols (baseball logos and flags, respectively) as distractors. Critically, of the two familiar symbols, one was rated as affective-positive and the other was rated as affective-negative. As in Experiment 1, the results showed that unfamiliar distractors can capture attention. In addition, the results also suggested that the two affective distractors captured attention (so long as they were sufficiently intense). This finding suggests that while increased knowledge can reduce capture, affect can restore an item's ability to capture attention. Finally, the results of Experiment 4 showed that observers were slower to disengage from a negative item than from a positive item. This evidence emphasizes the differential roles of semantic knowledge versus affect on attentional capture.

The Clinical Use of Robots for Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Critical Review.

We examined peer-reviewed studies in order to understand the current status of empirically-based evidence on the clinical applications of robots in the diagnosis and treatment of Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD). Studies are organized into four broad categories: (a) the response of individuals with ASD to robots or robot-like behavior in comparison to human behavior, (b) the use of robots to elicit behaviors, (c) the use of robots to model, teach, and/or practice a skill, and (d) the use of robots to provide feedback on performance. A critical review of the literature revealed that most of the findings are exploratory and have methodological limitations that make it difficult to draw firm conclusions about the clinical utility of robots. Finally, we outline the research needed to determine the incremental validity of this technique.

Proposal for the creation of a Web-based heterogeneous distributed archive for psychological data.

This report presents a proposal to create archives of data from psychological research and associated metadata Web pages and link them into a heterogeneous distributed archive on the World-Wide Web. Several specific recommendations are made concerning some of the issues faced by the data archivist and data archive user hoping to use the Web. In particular, a recommendation is made to create a publicly accessible Web page for each data set and place keywords, experimental methods, data descriptions, pointers to journal articles, and pointers to other archive Web pages pertinent to this data set on this metadata Web page. If the archivist includes a special keyword (PsychologyDataArchive) on the metadata Web page, Web-based search engines will automatically be able to subset all participating data archives for indexing and semantic analysis. The secondary data analyst can then include the word PsychologyDataArchive in his Web search and will be able to effectively find relevant participating Web data archives.