Female sterilization. Evidence.

The literature review herein reveals substantial information regarding the safety, efficacy, short-term complications, long-term complications, and noncontraceptive benefits of sterilization. This information should be helpful for providers and potential sterilization candidates. The review also reveals areas where the data are unclear. Points to keep in mind during counseling include the following: The vast majority of women are satisfied with the decision to undergo sterilization. The fact that regret occurs underscores the importance of counseling and adequate individual deliberation before the procedure. In addition to the difficulty and expense associated with sterilization reversal, the woman should thoroughly understand the permanence of the procedure. Although failure is a rare event, it can occur many years after the procedure. Although evidence suggests that hysterectomy rates are higher in sterilized women aged less than 30 to 35 years, it is unlikely that there is a plausible biologic effect of sterilization on hysterectomy risk. An association between tubal sterilization and menstrual cycle changes does not seem valid for changes noted up to 2 years after the procedure. Data are unclear and inconsistent among studies observing women more than 2 years after the procedure. Evidence consistently shows that sterilization is associated with a reduced incidence of ovarian cancer and pelvic inflammatory diseases. Most studies show no effect or improvement of sexual satisfaction after sterilization. Complications during and postprocedure are rare. Sterilization provides no protection against the acquisition of sexually transmitted disease. Patients and their physicians should recognize that sterilized women may need more targeted preventive efforts for health screening and to reduce high-risk behavior than women who use other contraceptive methods. The surgeon's experience and the woman's preferences should govern the ultimate decision regarding the approach and occlusion method. Level II-2 evidence indicates comparable safety between interval laparoscopy and minilaparotomy. Data consistently show that in experienced trained hands, tubal sterilization is safe and highly effective regardless of the approach or occlusive method. Attention to the subtleties of technique seems to be most important in ensuring procedure safety and efficacy. Reanalysis of the CREST data shows that the cumulative failure rate of bipolar coagulation is comparable with the failure rate of unipolar coagulation if a substantial length of tube is adequately coagulated. The data discussed herein can be used to guide management decisions that may increase accessibility and reduce cost of the procedure. Low-resource settings and office settings have maintained an excellent safety record for this procedure through performance of sterilization under local anesthesia. The use of local anesthesia enables a change in procedure location from an inpatient operating room to a free-standing surgical clinic or adequately equipped office. Local anesthesia, with or without preoperative medication, is an excellent option associated with a lower complication risk, reduced cost, and shorter, easier recovery. The surgeon should have specific training in the effective use of local anesthetics, preoperative medications, and management of rare complications in low-resource settings. Little additional research is needed regarding the safety and efficacy of standard sterilization approaches and occlusion methods. There is a need for continued development of nonsurgical methods of sterilization, microlaparoscopic approaches performed in the office setting, and the feasibility and acceptance of service provision by nonspecialist health care providers. The evidence indicates that female sterilization can be performed safely in a variety of resource settings ranging from rural sterilization camps in developing countries to high-tech, resource-rich operating rooms in developed c

Partner effects on a woman's intention to conceive: 'not with this partner'.

CONTEXT: Current definitions of pregnancy intention that are useful at aggregate levels are weak at the individual level. This is especially true in social contexts where childbearing and pregnancy often occur within casual or transient relationships. METHODS: Extensive data on lifetime partnerships and sexual behaviors, including pregnancies and births, from 250 low-income women who had experienced a total of 839 pregnancies are used to explore correlates of intention to conceive, as well as the extent to which women attribute their intentions to a current partnership. RESULTS: Some 57% of reported pregnancies were unintended. Overall, 21% of the women had not wished to conceive at least one of their pregnancies with the partner who impregnated them; that proportion rose to 33% among women who had had only unintended pregnancies. Even among women who had had no unintended pregnancies, 18% had had at least one conception that they had not wanted with their partner at the time of conception. Women were less likely to say they had not wanted to conceive with a particular partner if they were living with that partner than if they were not. The likelihood of not having wanted a pregnancy with a given partner rose with the lifetime number of serious partners. Pregnancies that were not wanted with a particular partner were more than twice as likely to end in abortion as were those that were (33% vs. 14%). CONCLUSIONS: Among these women, the desire to avoid childbearing relates more to the couple involved in the conception than to abstract notions of completed family size. It would therefore be useful to include items pertaining to partner relationships in future studies of pregnancy intention.

Treating vaginitis.

Vaginitis resulting from bacterial, fungal, or protozoal infections can be associated with altered vaginal discharge, odor, pruritus, vulvovaginal irritation, dysuria, or dyspareunia, depending on the type of infection. Bacterial vaginosis, which is primarily characterized by a malodorous discharge, is common in women with multiple sex partners and is caused by the overgrowth of several facultative and anaerobic bacterial species. Vulvovaginal candidiasis is characterized by pruritus and a cottage cheese-like discharge. Vaginal trichomoniasis, a sexually transmitted disease caused by an anaerobic protozoan parasite, is associated with a copious yellow or green, sometimes frothy, discharge. Differential diagnosis of these infections requires a thorough history, vulvovaginal examination, and simple laboratory tests, including microscopy of the vaginal discharge. The information obtained from this workup should enable an accurate diagnosis. Topical or oral metronidazole is the treatment of choice for bacterial vaginosis; terconazole, or other antifungals, for vulvovaginal candidiasis; and oral metronidazole for trichomoniasis.

Implantable hormonal and emergency contraception.

Recent publications about emergency and implantable contraception focused on increasing the awareness about emergency contraceptive methods and on updating readers about the controversies surrounding Norplant. Both emergency and implantable contraception have excellent safety and efficacy profiles, yet neither has realized its potential for widespread use. This review addresses these concerns and attempts to place these issues in perspective.

PIP: Long-acting, user-independent methods such as Norplant and postcoital interventions are important contraceptive options. Despite their excellent safety and efficacy profiles, both methods have failed to achieve their potential for widespread use. This paper reviews the issues and controversies associated with these methods in the US. Norplant has suffered a recent marked reduction in demand as a result of negative publicity and litigation concerning its side effects, removal difficulties, and the Silastic content of the implants. Norplant acceptors tend to be adolescent and adult women who have experienced contraceptive failures or dissatisfaction with other methods. Satisfaction and side-effect tolerance appear to be directly related to the quality of pre-insertion counseling. Emergency contraception has been used in the US after instances of rape and contraceptive failure, but they should be made more widely available in other situations in which pregnancy is not desired after unprotected intercourse. Since almost half of unintended pregnancies occur among contraceptive users, postcoital contraception is an appropriate adjunct to more traditional contraceptive practices.

Noncontraceptive benefits and therapeutic uses of depot medroxyprogesterone acetate.

This paper reviews the noncontraceptive benefits and therapeutic uses of depot medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA). Relevant articles were reviewed using a computerized Medline search of the literature from 1966 to 1995. Good evidence shows that DMPA use is associated with reduced iron-deficiency anemia, protection against pelvic inflammatory disease, protection from endometrial cancer and improved hematologic parameters among users with sickle cell disease. More studies are needed to fully assess DMPA's impact on other disorders.

Contraceptive outcomes among post-partum and post-abortal adolescents.

Between January 1992 and January 1993, there were 280 teens (ages 13-18) who either delivered a baby or terminated a pregnancy at Johns Hopkins Bayview Medical Center. Of these, 92 chose to contracept with Norplant implants, and 188 chose another method including "no" method. In July 1993, telephone interviews were conducted with 37 of those who chose Norplant implants and 41 of the non-Norplant implants users. After 1 year, 47% of oral contraceptive (COC) users had discontinued the method compared to only 16% of Norplant implants users (P < 0.03). Reasons for discontinuation centered on side effects for both groups but with some COC and condom users, discontinuing use due to "forgetfulness" or failure (pregnancy). Among the COC group (which was the most common choice after Norplant implant), 25% of the adolescents had experienced a subsequent unplanned pregnancy compared to 0% of the Norplant implant group (P < 0.01). Norplant implants were clearly an acceptable and effective contraceptive for these post-partum and post-abortal teens, who articulated a high motivation to avoid a subsequent unplanned pregnancy. However, it is clearly not the only method teens will choose to use, and more attention must be paid to adequate counseling of those choosing another method.

Comparison of adolescent and adult experiences with Norplant levonorgestrel contraceptive implants.

OBJECTIVE: To compare acceptability, tolerance of side effects, and continuation rates among adolescent and adult Norplant accepters. METHODS: An 18-month observational study was conducted of 136 adolescents and 542 adults who received Norplant at the Francis Scott Key Medical Center in Baltimore, Maryland. Data were collected from the following: a self-administered history form completed at the preinsertion visit, a self-administered follow-up form completed at routine follow-up visits, problem-visit chart review, and telephone contact for patients noncompliant with follow-up appointments. RESULTS: The adolescents ranged in age from 13-18 years (mean 16.4), and adults ranged in age from 19-46 (mean 24.7). The mean parity among teenagers was 1.4; among adults, 3.2. Thirty-nine percent of teenagers and 64% of adults had had one or more therapeutic abortions. Forty percent of adolescents and 47% of adults reported at least one contraceptive failure in the past. Both adolescent and adult Norplant accepters made few telephone calls or problem visits because of complaints or side effects. Compliance with routine annual follow-up was poor for adolescents (24 of 136, 18%) and adults (72 of 542, 13%). Follow-up of noncompliant patients revealed low rates of implant removal. Fifteen adolescents (11%) and 60 adults (11%) had Norplant removed. The most common reasons for removal included irregular bleeding, weight gain, headaches, and desire for pregnancy. CONCLUSIONS: Implant acceptability, continuation, and tolerance of side effects were high and comparable among adolescent and adult accepters. Initial implant users were primarily adolescents or adults who had experienced problems with other forms of reversible contraception. Adherence to scheduled follow-up appointments was poor, regardless of age.

Subdermal contraceptive implants in nurse-midwifery practice.

Subdermal contraceptive implants have only recently been approved for use in the United States. At present, only one subdermal contraceptive implant, Norplant, is approved in the United States. This article describes the development of Norplant, its efficacy and safety, a description of the system, education for clients, side effects, indications and contraindications, insertion and removal, incorporation into midwifery practice, and education for health professionals regarding its use.

PIP: The US Food and Drug Administration approved the contraceptive implant system, Norplant, in February 1990. It has been used in other countries for more than 15 years before the US approved it. The 6 subdermally placed capsules in the upper inner arm release 50-80 mcg levonorgestrel/day into the bloodstream, resulting in a 99.8% efficacy rate. Patient education and counseling, especially about changes in the bleeding pattern and Norplant's inability to protect against sexually transmitted diseases, are important to maintain client satisfaction and continued use of Norplant. Side effects, from most to least common, are changes in menstrual bleeding, constant bleeding, missed periods, weight gain/increased appetite, headache, oily skin or acne, weight loss/nausea, breast tenderness, nervousness or loss of appetite, and hair loss. It is rare when complications are so severe that they require removal of the implants. Contraindications to Norplant include active liver disease, active thromboembolic disease, breast cancer, pregnancy, and undiagnosed dysfunctional uterine bleeding. Antiepileptic medications, barbiturates, treatment for tuberculosis, and Butazolidin/phenylbutazone reduce Norplant's efficacy. A trained person should insert Norplant within the first 5-7 days of the menstrual cycle when it is evident there is no pregnancy. Some reports recommend that, after childbirth, it should be inserted 6 weeks postpartum to avoid hemorrhage. Yet, nurse-midwives at the Center for Addiction and Pregnancy at the Francis Scott Key Medical Center in Baltimore, Maryland, insert Norplant 24-48 hours postpartum in non-breast-feeding mothers with no increase in hemorrhage. Norplant must be removed no longer than 5 years after insertion. Certified nurse-midwives wanting to incorporate Norplant into their practices should follow the Guidelines for the Incorporation of New Procedures into Nurse-Midwifery Practice and have available a consulting physician who is familiar with and skilled in inserting Norplant. The manufacturer conducts training sessions for health professionals.

Preliminary experience with Norplant in an inner city population.

Norplant, the five-year subdermal contraceptive system, is the first implantable contraceptive method approved for general use in the United States. We describe the preliminary experiences of 246 U.S. women who accepted Norplant between April, 1991 and September, 1991. Norplant was well accepted among this diverse general population. Intensive counselling about side effects, especially menstrual changes, is crucial for patient satisfaction. Although 48% of acceptors experienced menstrual cycle changes and 70% experienced at least one side effect, phone calls and unscheduled visits for problems were infrequent. Adequate counselling about side effects obviates the need for a routine follow-up visit one month after insertion.

PIP: Between April and October 1991 in Baltimore, Maryland, family planning providers tried to follow 246 13-42 year old women at a clinic at the Francis Scott Key (FSK) Medical Center for 3 months who accepted the levonorgestrel-releasing implant Norplant to evaluate its acceptability and effectiveness among a high-risk population. 56% of the women were Black and 41% White. 69% were single. Most were interval gynecologic patients (109), but many were postabortion patients (97). The providers could only follow 108 women. Reasons for unscheduled visits were insertion site tenderness, amenorrhea, and removal. At 1 month, 70 % had at least 1 side effect. 48% had irregular bleeding 1-2 months after insertion. Other side effects included headache (49%), acne (24%), weight gain (22%), increased appetite (19%), and dizziness (18.5%). The 24-hour telephone hotline had only received 38 problem calls, all of which were from FSK Norplant patients. More than 50% of the calls were about menstruation concerns. Reasons for removal included pressure to receive Norplant, increased acne, headaches and prolonged bleeding, and postinsertion site problems. 1 woman became pregnant, but it occurred before insertion. She underwent an abortion and continued to use Norplant. 78% of the women considered Norplant to be excellent and 14% considered it to be good. 95% would recommend it to others. 69% reported convenience to be the best thing about Norplant and 22% said it was pregnancy prevention. Worst things were irregular bleeding (26%) and progestin-related side effects (e.g., headaches and weight gain) (19%). 35% did not consider anything to be bad about Norplant. 64% had at least some apprehension before insertion, the major reasons being fear of needles (48%) and of pain (37%). Prior to insertion, just 37% were worried about potential side effects. The providers thought that the routine follow-up visit at 1 month was not cost-effective and provided no specific clinical benefit. They advocated adequate counseling about side effects to take the place of the follow-up visit.

Injectable and implantable contraceptives.

In December 1990, the Food and Drug Administration approved Norplant (Wyeth-Ayerst, Radnor, PA) for general US use. This approval comes during a time period when the number of contraceptors relying on sterilization has risen, echoing known dissatisfaction with other reversible methods. During the past year, data have been presented that refute concern that Norplant may be an abortifacient. Continued estradiol production with development of follicles and ovulation in regularly menstruating women was documented. Ovulatory dysfunction among Norplant users, despite follicular development, was also detailed. Changes in carbohydrate metabolism were confirmed to be clinically insignificant. International development of biodegradable and non-biodegradable implants and 1, 3, or 6 months injectables continues. These injectable and implantable contraceptives promise diversity in contraceptive options to match diversity in contraceptive need and life style.

PIP: The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has not approved any injectable contraceptives, but, in December 1990, it approved Norplant, an implantable contraceptive. Family planning providers insert 6 capsules, each with 36 mg levonorgestrel, in a fan shape under the dermis of the upper arm. Norplant protects against pregnancy for at least 5 years . Fecundity returns within 2 weeks after capsules' removal. The steady low levels of levonorgestrel keep down both luteinizing hormone and follicle stimulating hormone levels. It suppresses ovulation and thickens the cervical mucus. Contraindications of Norplant are active thromboembolism, undiagnosed genital bleeding, acute liver disease, liver tumors, and breast cancer. Phenytoin and other drugs which speed up liver metabolism reduce Norplant's efficacy. The leading side effect of Norplant is irregular bleeding patterns. Some less common side effects include headaches, nervousness, dizziness, and acne. First year continuation rates range from 76 to 99% and 25 to 78% for 5 years of use. More than 85% of Norplant users are satisfied. Both continuation and satisfaction are associated with patient counseling. Research and development of biodegradable and other nonbiodegradable implants is ongoing. The most common injectable contraceptive in the world is Depo-Provera. 150 mg of Depo-Provera every 3 months suppresses ovulation, deteriorates the endometrium, thickens cervical mucus, and reduces motility of the tubes, thereby providing adequate protection against pregnancy. Some research shows Depo-Provera use significantly increases the low-density lipoprotein to high-density lipoprotein ratio, thereby increasing the risk for atherogenesis. Effectiveness rates match those of Norplant. Norethindrone enanthate was the first injectable contraceptive. Even though 40 countries approve it, the US does not. Animal studies of injectable microspheres or microcapsules with either progestogen or progestogen and estrogen are in progress.

Transdermal estradiol with oral progestin: biological and clinical effects in younger and older postmenopausal women.

The purpose of this study was to compare the biochemical and clinical effects of transdermal estrogen replacement therapy (tERT) in younger and older postmenopausal women. We treated 15 younger (less than 60 y) and 13 older (greater than or equal to 60 y) healthy postmenopausal women (45-72 y) with four successive 8-week regimens of tERT at doses of 0 to 150 micrograms/day, combined with cyclic oral medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA). In both age groups, there were similar (p = .0001) dose-responsive increases in plasma estrogen levels and decreases in LH and FSH levels, although LH values were lower in older women both before and after tERT (p less than .02). The addition of MPA further suppressed LH and, to a lesser extent, FSH in both younger and older women. The ratio of estrogenized to nonestrogenized vaginal cells increased with tERT (p less than .007) in both age groups, but significant symptomatic improvement of vaginal irritation was noted only at the highest tERT dose. Adverse effects unrelated to age included short-term nausea in 4/28 women, and skin irritation at the patch sites in 20/28 women. Vaginal bleeding was of shorter duration, but breast tenderness was more common in older women. Further studies of long-term tERT effects in elderly women are indicated.

Fertility after contraception or abortion.

There is a very small correlation, if any, between the prior use of OCs and congenital malformations, including Down's syndrome. There are few, if any, recent reports on masculinization of a female fetus born to a mother who took an OC containing 1 mg of a progestogen during early pregnancy. However, patients suspected of being pregnant and who are desirous of continuing that pregnancy should not continue to take OCs, nor should progestogen withdrawal pregnancy tests be used. Concern still exists regarding the occurrence of congenital abnormalities in babies born to such women. The incidence of postoperative infection after first trimester therapeutic abortion in this country is low. However, increasing numbers of women are undergoing repeated pregnancy terminations, and their risk for subsequent pelvic infections may be multiplied with each succeeding abortion. The incidence of prematurity due to cervical incompetence or surgical infertility after first trimester pregnancy terminations is not increased significantly. Asherman's syndrome may occur after septic therapeutic abortion. The pregnancy rate after treatment of this syndrome is low. The return of menses and the achievement of a pregnancy may be slightly delayed after OCs are discontinued, but the fertility rate is within the normal range by 1 year. The incidence of postpill amenorrhea of greater than 6 months' duration is probably less than 1%. The occurrence of the syndrome does not seem to be related to length of use or type of pill. Patients with prior normal menses as well as those with menstrual abnormalities before use of OCs may develop this syndrome. Patients with normal estrogen and gonadotropin levels usually respond with return of menses and ovulation when treated with clomiphene. The rate for achievement of pregnancy is much lower than that for patients with spontaneous return of menses. The criteria for defining PID or for categorizing its severity are diverse. The incidence of PID is higher among IUD users than among patients taking OCs or using a barrier method. The excess risk of PID among IUD users, with the exception of the first few months after insertion, is related to sexually transmitted diseases and not the IUD. Women with no risk factors for sexually transmitted diseases have little increased risk of PID or infertility associated with IUD use. There appears to be no increased risk of congenital anomalies, altered sex ratio, or early pregnancy loss among spermicide users. All present methods of contraception entail some risk to the patient. The risk of imparied future fertility with the use of any method appears to be low.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

PIP: This is a comprehensive review of the risk of infertility or adverse effects on pregnancy outcome, such as chromosomal or congenital birth defects, amenorrhea, pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), or spontaneous abortion, after use of oral contraceptives, IUDs, induced abortion or spermicides. The sequelae reported for orals are chromosomal abnormalities, the VACTERL anomalies, masculinization of female fetus, Down's syndrome and post-pill amenorrhea. Several large studies found no increased risks for birth defects, although the risk of malformations when pregnant women inadvertently take the pill in early pregnancy was high in 1 of 2 such studies. Masculinization was reported with high dose combined hormone treatment and in 2 infants of a woman who took Enovid. the bulk of recent studies on secondary amenorrhea indicate that it is rare, but just as likely to occur in women with prior normal or abnormal menstrual patterns. One study found that amenorrhea is 7.7 times more likely to develop in women who took the pill to regulate menses. It is recommended that women with amenorrhea be screened for pituitary tumors and counseled before prescribing pills, and that those who fail to ovulate after stopping the pill be treated at least 6 months with clomiphene. A massing of all studies on the impact of 1st trimester induced abortion on subsequent fertility, premature delivery and spontaneous abortion, shows all relative risks around 1.0. After multiple abortions, the results are conflicting. In contrast, prior series analyzing illegal abortion have an unquestioned adverse effect on fertility and pregnancy outcome. Asherman's syndrome, a rare disorder of intrauterine adhesions, menstrual abnormalities, infertility and habitual abortion, has been associated with D & C abortion concurrent with pelvic sepsis, or traumatic pregnancy with D & C. This condition can be treated with moderate success. The bulk of IUD studies conclude that there is no overall decrement in fertility, while some disaggregated studies point the Dalkon shield as a higher risk and copper IUDs as a lower risk. PID and its consequences are now considered related to the immediate post-insertion time frame, or specifically to women who are at risk of contracting sexually transmitted disease, i.e., those with multiple partners, those with prior PID and nulliparas. Comprehensive review of current large series on spermicides shows no relationship between their use and spontaneous abortion or congenital malformation.

Vaginal evisceration with pneumoperitoneum. A case report.

Vaginal evisceration with pneumoperitoneum occurred in a premenopausal woman.