Sorption-Induced Fiber Optic Plasmonic Gas Sensing via Small Grazing Angle of Incidence.

Sensing technologies based on plasmonic nanomaterials are of interest for various chemical, biological, environmental, and medical applications. In this work, an incorporation strategy of colloidal plasmonic nanoparticles (pNPs) in microporous polymer for realizing distinct sorption-induced plasmonic sensing is reported. This approach is demonstrated by introducing tin-doped indium oxide pNPs into a polymer of intrinsic microporosity (PIM-1). The composite film (pNPs-polymer) provides distinct and tunable optical features on the fiber optic (FO) platform that can be used as a signal transducer for gas sensing (e.g., CO2 ) under atmospheric conditions. The resulting pNPs-polymer composite demonstrates high sensitivity response on FO in the evanescent field configuration, provided by the dramatic response of modes above the total-internal-reflection angle. Furthermore, by varying the pNPs content in the polymer matrix, the optical behavior of the pNPs-polymer composite film can be tuned to affect the operational wavelength by over several hundred nanometers and the sensitivity of the sensor in the near-infrared range. It is also shown that the pNPs-polymer composite film exhibits remarkable stability over a period of more than 10 months by mitigating the physical aging issue of the polymer.

Real-Time Monitoring of Gas-Phase and Dissolved CO2 Using a Mixed-Matrix Composite Integrated Fiber Optic Sensor for Carbon Storage Application.

Novel chemical sensors that improve detection and quantification of CO2 are critical to ensuring safe and cost-effective monitoring of carbon storage sites. Fiber optic (FO)-based chemical sensor systems are promising field-deployable systems for real-time monitoring of CO2 in geological formations for long-range distributed sensing. In this work, a mixed-matrix composite integrated FO sensor system was developed with a purely optical readout that reliably operates as a detector for gas-phase and dissolved CO2. A mixed-matrix composite sensor coating consisting of plasmonic nanocrystals and hydrophobic zeolite embedded in a polymer matrix was integrated on the FO sensor. The mixed-matrix composite FO sensor showed excellent reversibility/stability in a high humidity environment and sensitivity to gas-phase CO2 over a large concentration range. This remarkable sensing performance was enabled by using plasmonic nanocrystals to significantly enhance the sensitivity and a hydrophobic zeolite to effectively mitigate interference from water vapor. The sensor exhibited the ability to sense CO2 in the presence of other geologically relevant gases, which is of importance for applications in geological formations. A prototype FO sensor configuration, which possesses a robust sensing capability for monitoring dissolved CO2 in natural water, was demonstrated. Reproducibility was confirmed over many cycles, both in a laboratory setting and in the field. More importantly, we demonstrated on-line monitoring capabilities with a wireless telemetry system, which transferred the data from the field to a website. The combination of outstanding CO2 sensing properties and facile coating processability makes this mixed-matrix composite FO sensor a good candidate for practical carbon storage applications.

Computational Screening of Physical Solvents for CO2 Pre-combustion Capture.

A computational scheme was used to screen physical solvents for CO2 pre-combustion capture by integrating the commercial NIST database, an in-house computational database, chem-informatics, and molecular modeling. A commercially available screened hydrophobic solvent, diethyl sebacate, was identified from the screening with favorable physical properties and promising absorption performance. The promising performance to use diethyl sebacate in CO2 pre-combustion capture has also been confirmed from experiments. Water loading in diethyl sebacate is very low, and therefore, water is kept with H2 in the gas stream. The favorable CO2 interaction with diethyl sebacate and the intermediate solvent free volume fraction leads to both high CO2 solubility and high CO2/H2 solubility selectivity in diethyl sebacate. An in-house NETL computational database was built to characterize CO2, H2, N2, and H2O interactions with 202 different chemical functional groups. It was found that 13% of the functional groups belong to the strong interaction category with the CO2 interaction energy between -15 and -21 kJ/mol; 62% of the functional groups interact intermediately with CO2 (-8 to -15 kJ/mol). The remaining 25% of functional groups interact weakly with CO2 (below -8 kJ/mol). In addition, calculations show that CO2 interactions with the functional groups are stronger than N2 and H2 interactions but are weaker than H2O interactions. The CO2 and H2O interactions with the same functional groups exhibit a very strong linear positive correlation coefficient of 0.92. The relationship between CO2 and H2 gas solubilities and solvent fractional free volume (FFV) has been systematically studied for seven solvents at 298.2 K. A skewed bell-shaped relation was obtained between CO2 solubility and solvent FFV. When an organic compound has a density approximately 10% lower than its density at 298.2 K and 1 bar, it exhibits the highest CO2 loading at that specific solvent density and FFV. Note that the solvent densities were varied using simulations, which are difficult to be obtained from the experiment. In contrast, H2 solubility results exhibit an almost perfect positive linear correlation with the solvent FFV. The theoretical maximum and minimum physical CO2 solubilities in any organic compound at 298.2 K were estimated to be 11 and 0.4 mol/MPa L, respectively. An examination of 182 experimental CO2 physical solubility data and 29 simulated CO2 physical solubilities shows that all the CO2 physical solubility data are within the maximum and minimum with only a few exceptions. Finally, simulations suggest that in order to develop physical solvents with both high CO2 solubility and high CO2/H2 solubility selectivity, the solvents should contain functional groups which are available to interact strongly with CO2 while minimizing FFV.

Synthesis of High-Quality Mg-MOF-74 Thin Films via Vapor-Assisted Crystallization.

The unique features of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), such as their large surface areas and diversity of structures, make them suitable for a broad range of applications including storage, separation, and sensing of gases. Among all the MOFs, Mg-MOF-74 with the highest CO2 uptake at 1 bar and 25 °C would be particularly beneficial for CO2-related applications. One of the most critical enabling technologies for implementing Mg-MOF-74 is the preparation of dense and continuous films that would maximize the sorption behaviors. However, Mg-MOF-74 thin films present significant challenges in demonstrating large-scale coatings. Herein, we demonstrate for the first time high-quality Mg-MOF-74 films synthesized via a vapor-assisted crystallization (VAC) process. The VAC process described herein provides dense and highly crystalline layers of the Mg-MOF-74 thin film with a low coefficient of variation of film thickness below 7%. By minimizing the solvent use, the VAC process is also more environmentally friendly than conventional techniques. In this work, we first optimized a precursor solution for the VAC process and then investigated the effects of synthesis temperature, time, and droplet volume on the growth, crystallinity, and thickness of VAC Mg-MOF-74 films. The porosity of the MOF film was assessed by measuring the CO2 uptake at room temperature and 1 bar. The obtained VAC Mg-MOF-74 films possess a well-defined microporosity, as deduced from CO2 adsorption studies via quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) and comparison with bulk Mg-MOF-74 reference data. Furthermore, CO2 cyclic adsorption-desorption experiments on the VAC Mg-MOF-74 films showed scaled uptakes to a wide range of CO2 concentration without showing significant variations in the baseline. We specifically demonstrate how the film's quality of the MOF affects adsorption behavior of CO2 on VAC Mg-MOF-74 and drop-cast Mg-MOF-74 films.

Density Functional Theory Study of the Structure of the Pillared Hofmann compound Ni(3-Methy-4,4'-bipyridine)[Ni(CN)4] (Ni-BpyMe or PICNIC-21).

We use dispersion-corrected density functional theory (DFT) to investigate the structure of the pillared Hofmann compound Ni(3-Methy-4,4'-bipyridine)[Ni(CN)4] (Ni-BpyMe for short, or PICNIC-21). We model the disorder found in experimental X-ray structure refinement via an ensemble of supercells with ordered ligand orientation configurations. The ensemble-averaged structure agrees very well with experiment, except for the positions of the methyl group hydrogen atoms. While the dihedral angles between the bipyridal rings of each BpyMe ligand of the averaged structure is 90°, the local dihedral angles are about 80°. DFT screening of configurations where the crystallographic a/b ratio is constrained to equal 1 fail to find the configurations that are most stable when a/b is set to its distorted experimental value of a/b = 0.86, demonstrating the difficulty of solving pillared Hofmann structures purely theoretically without experimental input. The waviness of the Ni(CN)2 sheets is explained as a tendency to maximize dispersion interactions between these sheets and the methyl pyridine rings. This waviness leads to greater residual pore space and greater adsorbate uptake at low pressure compared with the analogous pillared compound Ni-Bpene (PICNIC-60).

Cryo-EM structures of the human glutamine transporter SLC1A5 (ASCT2) in the outward-facing conformation.

Alanine-serine-cysteine transporter 2 (ASCT2, SLC1A5) is the primary transporter of glutamine in cancer cells and regulates the mTORC1 signaling pathway. The SLC1A5 function involves finely tuned orchestration of two domain movements that include the substrate-binding transport domain and the scaffold domain. Here, we present cryo-EM structures of human SLC1A5 and its complex with the substrate, L-glutamine in an outward-facing conformation. These structures reveal insights into the conformation of the critical ECL2a loop which connects the two domains, thus allowing rigid body movement of the transport domain throughout the transport cycle. Furthermore, the structures provide new insights into substrate recognition, which involves conformational changes in the HP2 loop. A putative cholesterol binding site was observed near the domain interface in the outward-facing state. Comparison with the previously determined inward-facing structure of SCL1A5 provides a basis for a more integrated understanding of substrate recognition and transport mechanism in the SLC1 family.

Alkylamine-Integrated Metal-Organic Framework-Based Waveguide Sensors for Efficient Detection of Carbon Dioxide from Humid Gas Streams.

Metal-organic framework (MOF)-based chemical sensors have recently been demonstrated to be highly selective, sensitive, and reversible for CO2 sensing across a range of platforms including optical fiber and surface acoustic wave-based sensors. However, interference of water molecules is a primary issue in CO2 sensing systems based upon MOF layers due to cross-sensitivity, stability of MOF-based materials in humid conditions, and associated baseline drift over the lifetime of sensors. Herein, we develop a simple approach of alleviating the negative effect of water vapor to the optical fiber sensor by using alkylamine (i.e., oleylamine) to form a protective hydrophobic layer on the surface of MOFs for improving water stability. Alkylamine-modification of a MOF-coated optical fiber sensor provides a reversible and stable sensing response to a wide range of CO2 concentrations while also enhancing the CO2 sensitivity of the sensor under wet conditions. The FT-IR and breakthrough studies on the oleylamine-modified MOF confirm that the water vapor does not adversely impact the intrinsic CO2 sorption capacities. Thus, this simple stratrgy for enhancing the CO2/H2O selectivity in the MOF sorbent could also be useful for improving CO2 capture/separation performance in flue gas stream.

Structural Basis of CO2 Adsorption in a Flexible Metal-Organic Framework Material.

This paper reports on the structural basis of CO2 adsorption in a representative model of flexible metal-organic framework (MOF) material, Ni(1,2-bis(4-pyridyl)ethylene)[Ni(CN)4] (NiBpene or PICNIC-60). NiBpene exhibits a CO2 sorption isotherm with characteristic hysteresis and features on the desorption branch that can be associated with discrete structural changes. Various gas adsorption effects on the structure are demonstrated for CO2 with respect to N2, CH4 and H2 under static and flowing gas pressure conditions. For this complex material, a combination of crystal structure determination and density functional theory (DFT) is needed to make any real progress in explaining the observed structural transitions during adsorption/desorption. Possible enhancements of CO2 gas adsorption under supercritical pressure conditions are considered, together with the implications for future exploitation. In situ operando small-angle neutron and X-ray scattering, neutron diffraction and X-ray diffraction under relevant gas pressure and flow conditions are discussed with respect to previous studies, including ex situ, a priori single-crystal X-ray diffraction structure determination. The results show how this flexible MOF material responds structurally during CO2 adsorption; single or dual gas flow results for structural change remain similar to the static (Sieverts) adsorption case, and supercritical CO2 adsorption results in enhanced gas uptake. Insights are drawn for this representative flexible MOF with implications for future flexible MOF sorbent design.

Simple Fabrication Method for Mixed Matrix Membranes with in Situ MOF Growth for Gas Separation.

Metal organic framework (MOF)/polymer composite membranes are of interest for gas separations, as they often have performance that exceeds the neat polymer. However, traditional composite membranes, known as mixed matrix membranes (MMMs), can have complex and time-consuming preparation procedures. The MOF and polymer are traditionally prepared separately and require priming and mixing to ensure uniform distribution of particles and compatibility of the polymer-particle interface. In this study, we reduce the number of steps using an in situ MOF growth strategy. Herein, MMMs are prepared by growing MOF (UiO-66) in situ within a Matrimid polymer matrix while simultaneously curing the matrix. The gas separation performance for MMMs, prepared using this approach, was evaluated for the CO2/N2 separation and compared with MMMs made using the traditional postsynthesis mixing. It was found that MMMs prepared using both the in situ MOF growth strategy and by traditional postsynthesis mixing are equivalent in performance. However, using the in situ MOF growth allows for a simpler, faster, and potentially more economical fabrication alternative for MMMs.

Zeolitic imidazolate framework-coated acoustic sensors for room temperature detection of carbon dioxide and methane.

The integration of nanoporous materials such as metal organic frameworks (MOFs) with sensitive transducers can result in robust sensing platforms for monitoring gases and chemical vapors for a range of applications. Here, we report on an integration of the zeolitic imidazolate framework - 8 (ZIF-8) MOF with surface acoustic wave (SAW) and thickness shear mode quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) devices to monitor carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) under ambient conditions. The MOF was directly coated on the Y-Z LiNbO3 SAW delay lines (operating frequency, f0 = 436 MHz) and AT-cut quartz TSM resonators (resonant frequency, f0 = 9 MHz) and the devices were tested for various gases in N2 under ambient conditions. The devices were able to detect the changes in CO2 or CH4 concentrations with relatively higher sensitivity to CO2, which was due to its higher adsorption potential and heavier molecular weight. The sensors showed full reversibility and repeatability which were attributed to the physisorption of the gases into the MOF and high stability of the devices. Both types of sensors showed linear responses relative to changes in the binary gas compositions thereby allowing to construct calibration curves which correlated well with the expected mass changes in the sorbent layer based on mixed-gas gravimetric adsorption isotherms measured on bulk samples. For 200 nm thick films, the SAW sensitivities to CO2 and CH4 were 1.44 × 10-6/vol% and 8 × 10-8/vol%, respectively, against the QCM sensitivities 0.24 × 10-6/vol% and 1 × 10-8/vol%, respectively, which were evaluated as the fractional change in the signal. The SAW sensors were also evaluated for 100 nm-300 nm thick films, the sensitivities of which were found to increase with the thickness due to the increased number of pores for the adsorption of a larger amount of gases. In addition, the MOF-coated SAW delay lines had a good response in wireless mode, demonstrating their potential to operate remotely for the detection of the gases at emission sites across the energy infrastructure.

Metal-Organic Framework Thin Film Coated Optical Fiber Sensors: A Novel Waveguide-Based Chemical Sensing Platform.

Integration of optical fiber with sensitive thin films offers great potential for the realization of novel chemical sensing platforms. In this study, we present a simple design strategy and high performance of nanoporous metal-organic framework (MOF) based optical gas sensors, which enables detection of a wide range of concentrations of small molecules based upon extremely small differences in refractive indices as a function of analyte adsorption within the MOF framework. Thin and compact MOF films can be uniformly formed and tightly bound on the surface of etched optical fiber through a simple solution method which is critical for manufacturability of MOF-based sensor devices. The resulting sensors show high sensitivity/selectivity to CO2 gas relative to other small gases (H2, N2, O2, and CO) with rapid (

Discovery of PF-06928215 as a high affinity inhibitor of cGAS enabled by a novel fluorescence polarization assay.

Cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS) initiates the innate immune system in response to cytosolic dsDNA. After binding and activation from dsDNA, cGAS uses ATP and GTP to synthesize 2', 3' -cGAMP (cGAMP), a cyclic dinucleotide second messenger with mixed 2'-5' and 3'-5' phosphodiester bonds. Inappropriate stimulation of cGAS has been implicated in autoimmune disease such as systemic lupus erythematosus, thus inhibition of cGAS may be of therapeutic benefit in some diseases; however, the size and polarity of the cGAS active site makes it a challenging target for the development of conventional substrate-competitive inhibitors. We report here the development of a high affinity (KD = 200 nM) inhibitor from a low affinity fragment hit with supporting biochemical and structural data showing these molecules bind to the cGAS active site. We also report a new high throughput cGAS fluorescence polarization (FP)-based assay to enable the rapid identification and optimization of cGAS inhibitors. This FP assay uses Cy5-labelled cGAMP in combination with a novel high affinity monoclonal antibody that specifically recognizes cGAMP with no cross reactivity to cAMP, cGMP, ATP, or GTP. Given its role in the innate immune response, cGAS is a promising therapeutic target for autoinflammatory disease. Our results demonstrate its druggability, provide a high affinity tool compound, and establish a high throughput assay for the identification of next generation cGAS inhibitors.

Discovery of Fragment-Derived Small Molecules for in Vivo Inhibition of Ketohexokinase (KHK).

Increased fructose consumption and its subsequent metabolism have been implicated in hepatic steatosis, dyslipidemia, obesity, and insulin resistance in humans. Since ketohexokinase (KHK) is the principal enzyme responsible for fructose metabolism, identification of a selective KHK inhibitor may help to further elucidate the effect of KHK inhibition on these metabolic disorders. Until now, studies on KHK inhibition with small molecules have been limited due to the lack of viable in vivo pharmacological tools. Herein we report the discovery of 12, a selective KHK inhibitor with potency and properties suitable for evaluating KHK inhibition in rat models. Key structural features interacting with KHK were discovered through fragment-based screening and subsequent optimization using structure-based drug design, and parallel medicinal chemistry led to the identification of pyridine 12.

An ultra-microporous organic polymer for high performance carbon dioxide capture and separation.

Rational design concepts were used to prepare a novel porous benzimidazole-linked polymer (BILP-101) in a simple one-pot reaction. BILP-101 has exhibited ultra-microporosity (0.54 nm), very high CO2 uptake (∼1 mmol g(-1), 4 wt%, 0.15 bar/298 K) and exceptional CO2/N2 selectivity of 80 (298 K), which results in remarkable working capacity and regenerability for CO2 capture applications.

Screening Hofmann compounds as CO2 sorbents: nontraditional synthetic route to over 40 different pore-functionalized and flexible pillared cyanonickelates.

A simple reaction scheme based on the heterogeneous intercalation of pillaring ligands (HIPLs) provides a convenient method for systematically tuning pore size, pore functionality, and network flexibility in an extended series of pillared cyanonickelates (PICNICs), commonly referred to as Hofmann compounds. The versatility of the approach is demonstrated through the preparation of over 40 different PICNICs containing pillar ligands ranging from ∼4 to ∼15 Šin length and modified with a wide range of functional groups, including fluoro, aldehyde, alkylamine, alkyl, aryl, trifluoromethyl, ester, nitro, ether, and nonmetalated 4,4'-bipyrimidine. The HIPL method involves reaction of a suspension of preformed polymeric sheets of powdered anhydrous nickel cyanide with an appropriate pillar ligand in refluxing organic solvent, resulting in the conversion of the planar [Ni2(CN)4]n networks into polycrystalline three-dimensional porous frameworks containing the organic pillar ligand. Preliminary investigations indicate that the HIPL reaction is also amenable to forming Co(L)Ni(CN)4, Fe(L)Ni(CN)4, and Fe(L)Pd(CN)4 networks. The materials show variable adsorption behavior for CO2 depending on the pillar length and pillar functionalization. Several compounds show structurally flexible behavior during the adsorption and desorption of CO2. Interestingly, the newly discovered flexible compounds include two flexible Fe(L)Ni(CN)4 derivatives that are structurally related to previously reported porous spin-crossover compounds. The preparations of 20 pillar ligands based on ring-functionalized 4,4'-dipyridyls, 1,4-bis(4-pyridyl)benzenes, and N-(4-pyridyl)isonicotinamides are also described.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) absorption behavior of mixed matrix polymer composites containing a flexible coordination polymer.

Mixed matrix membranes (MMMs) comprised of metal organic frameworks (MOFs) dispersed in organic polymers are popular materials under study for potential applications in gas separations. However, research on MMMs containing structurally dynamic sorbents known as flexible MOFs has only very recently appeared in the literature. The thermodynamic requirements of the structure transition between the low porosity and high porosity phases of flexible MOFs may provide a mechanism for high adsorption selectivity in these materials. A fundamental question in MMMs containing flexible MOFs is how the constraint of the polymer matrix on the intrinsic expansion of the flexible MOF particles that occurs during gas adsorption might affect the thermodynamics of this structural phase transition and influence the gas adsorption properties of the embedded MOF. To investigate the fundamental nature of this flexible MOF-polymer interface, thin films of ~20 um thickness were prepared using the flexible linear chain coordination polymer catena-bis(dibenzoylmethanato)-(4,4'bipyridyl)nickel(II) "Ni(Bpy)(DBM)(2)" embedded as 35 wt% dispersions in Matrimid®, polystyrene, and polysulfone. The adsorption of CO(2) in the polymers and embedded particles was studied using in situ ATR-FTIR spectroscopy and variable temperature volumetric CO(2) adsorption/desorption isotherms. Interestingly, no effect of the polymer matrix on the gas adsorption behavior of the embedded Ni(Bpy)(DBM)(2) particles was observed. The composite samples all showed the same threshold pressures for CO(2) absorption and desorption hysteresis associated with the structural phase change in the polymer embedded Ni(Bpy)(DBM)(2) particles as was observed in the pristine polycrystalline sample. The current results contrast those recently reported for a MMM containing the flexible MOF "NH(2)-MIL-53" where a significant increase in the threshold pressure for CO(2) adsorption associated with the structural phase change of the MOF was observed in the MMM as compared to the isolated MOF. The conflicting behaviors in these two systems are rationalized from the large differences in unit cell expansions between the two MOFs during the CO(2) adsorption process.

Modulation by aspirin of nuclear phospho-signal transducer and activator of transcription 6 expression: Possible role in therapeutic benefit associated with aspirin desensitization.

BACKGROUND: Aspirin-exacerbated respiratory disease is characterized by asthma, nasal polyps, and intolerance to aspirin with overexpression of leukotriene (LT) C(4) synthase and cysteinyl leukotriene receptors. Through an unknown mechanism, aspirin desensitization is an effective treatment. OBJECTIVE: We hypothesized that aspirin desensitization blocks IL-4-induced expression of these LT activities through inhibition of signal transducer and activator of transcription 6 (STAT6)-mediated transcription. METHODS: Nuclear extracts were derived from THP-1 and normal human monocytes resting and cocultured with aspirin before IL-4 stimulation. Quantitative PCRs were conducted. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays were performed by using oligomers for STAT6 sites within the LT receptor and synthase promoters. Western blots of nuclear extracts were probed by using anti-phospho-STAT6 antibodies. RESULTS: Upregulation of LT receptor mRNA by IL-4 was negated by aspirin and ketorolac but not by sodium salicylate. The STAT6 site in the LT receptor and synthase promoters was confirmed by using mobility shift assays by competing with unlabeled STAT6 consensus probes and supershifts with anti-STAT6 antibodies. Aspirin and ketorolac decreased the IL-4-inducible expression of nuclear STAT6 observed in mobility shift assays and Western hybridization. CONCLUSION: The LT receptor and synthase promoters have STAT6-binding sites that are engaged by IL-4-induced nuclear extracts and inhibited by aspirin. Assuming that normal monocytes behave like monocytes from patients with aspirin-exacerbated respiratory disease, inhibition of IL-4-STAT6 might explain a mechanism in aspirin desensitization daily treatment, resulting in downregulation of production and responsiveness to cysteinyl leukotrienes. This biologic activity of aspirin likely reflects COX inhibition because it was shared with ketorolac but not sodium salicylate.

Hysteresis in the physisorption of CO2 and N2 in a flexible pillared layer nickel cyanide.

Rare hysteretic adsorption/desorption isotherms are reported for CO2 and N2 on a pillared Ni(1,2-bis(4-pyridyl)ethylene)[Ni(CN)4] compound (NiBpeneNiCN). The hysteresis occurs under moderate pressure and at temperatures above the critical temperatures of the respective gases. Powder X-ray diffraction measurements indicate that the material is an extended three-dimensional analogue of the well-known Hofmann clathrates which is formed through axial bridging of the in-plane octahedral Ni sites by the bidentate 1,2-bis(4-pyridyl)ethylene. The hysteretic behavior toward guest adsorption and desorption is attributed to a structural phase transition in the material resulting from a variation in the tilt angle of the 1,2-bis(4-pyridyl)ethylene pillars. Kinetics studies on the desorption of acetone from the material show two first-order processes with two rate constants yielding activation energies of 68 and 55 kJ/mol when loadings are greater than 1 equiv of acetone per formula unit. The CO2 adsorption/desorption isotherms on the series of structurally similar Ni(L)[Ni(CN)4] compounds, where L = pyrazine, 4,4'-bipyridine, 1,2-bis(4-pyridyl)ethane, and dipyridylacetylene, are also reported. In contrast to NiBpeneNiCN, the rigid members of this series show normal type I isotherms with no measureable hysteresis and no significant structural changes during the adsorption/desorption cycle, while the flexible 1,2-bis(4-pyridyl)ethane-bridged sample collapses in the guest-free state and shows no significant adsorption of CO2.

Asthma: a syndrome composed of heterogeneous diseases.

OBJECTIVE: To review the concept that asthma comprises distinct heterogeneous inflammatory disorders characterized by patients showing different phenotypes with distinct genetic components, environmental causes, and immunopathologic signa- DATA SOURCES: Ovid MEDLINE and PubMed databases from 1950 to the present time were searched for relevant articles and references regarding the heterogeneity of asthma. STUDY SELECTION: Articles that described the various phenotypes of asthma were used for this review. RESULTS: Asthma is unlikely to be a single disease but rather a series of complex, overlapping individual diseases or phenotypes, each defined by its unique interaction between genetic and environmental factors. These conditions include syndromes characterized by allergen-exacerbated, nonallergic, and aspirin-exacerbated factors along with syndromes best distinguished by their pathologic findings (eosinophilic, neutrophilic, pauci-granulocytic), response to therapy (corticosteroid resistant), and natural history (remodeling prone). Additional phenotypes will almost certainly be identified as advances in genetics and other profiling methods are made and will be accompanied by the availability of clear biomarkers for distinguishing among them. CONCLUSIONS: Responses to asthma medications vary considerably among patients, likely reflecting, at least in part, the differing sensitivities of the various asthma phenotypes. Selecting the best possible treatment course in individual patients will be aided by clearly identifying the different phenotypes. Physicians need to recognize this when making decisions to adjust treatment to improve asthma control.