Vulnerability of biological resources to potential oil spills in the Lower Amazon River, Amapá, Brazil.

Ships that transport oil or derivatives on the Lower Amazon River waterway are at a considerably high risk of suffering spills, with severe environmental and socioeconomic consequences. The present study is aimed at modeling and simulating the oil dispersion and magnitude of these accidents in terms of the vulnerability of biological resources, considering two oil types most often transported by medium-sized tankers in the region (S500 and S10). The study method was as follows: (a) secondary data were collected from local species, and the coastal sensitivity index (CSI) was calculated, obtained from Brazil's Letters of Environmental Sensitivity to Oil Spill (Cartas de Sensibilidade Ambiental ao Derramamento de Óleo (SAO)); (b) ship traffic information was obtained from Brazil's Statistical Yearbook of Waterway (Anuário Estatístico Aquaviário (ANTAQ)); (c) modeling and numerical simulation of oil spills in water were performed, in order to investigate dispersion scenarios (SisBaHia); (d) three numerical scenarios of oil plume dispersion (in May and November) were integrated to assess species vulnerability in three zones of environmental interest (I, II, and III). Some species identified in zone II were considered to be the most vulnerable (fish, plankton, aquatic mammals, amphibians, aquatic invertebrates, trees, and plants), with the mammal Sotalia fluviatilis being at risk of extinction (Gervais & Deville, 1853). The simulated scenarios showed that contingency plans should have a minimum response time of 3 h and a maximum response time of 72 h to prevent the oil plumes from dispersing as far as 170 km longitudinally, depending on the zone, season, and tidal phase. Thus, a total of 62 sites of biological resources were identified in the literature recorded from 2016. Considering them, 324 species of flora and fauna were recorded, distributed in the following seven groups: (i) 49 tree and plant species, (ii) 37 amphibian species, (iii) 2 aquatic invertebrate species, (iv) 23 invertebrate species, (v) 1 aquatic mammal species, (vi) 95 fish species, and (vii) 117 planktonic species. A failure to respond to these accidents would impact immense intact aquatic areas and ecosystems, with unpredictable consequences for local biodiversity conservation.

Solid waste generation indicators, per capita, in Amazonian countries.

Countries participating in the Amazon Cooperation Treaty Organization have few options for the environmentally appropriate final disposal of municipal solid waste. Thus, sustainable practices aimed at reducing the negative effects of such a disposal on the environment are complex and hard to accomplish, since solid waste generation per capita proportionally increases as populations grow (≈ 2.7% > world average), mainly in countries inserted in Amazon Cooperation Treaty Organization. Thus, demographic, socioeconomic, management, and ecological factors represented by 18 independent variables were statistically analyzed to explain waste per capita variation in Amazonian countries and sub-regions. Multiple Kruskal-Wallis tests were applied; 13 of them recorded significant results (p < 0.05). Subsequently, simple and multivariate regression analyses were carried out by taking into consideration waste per capita and significant variables. Simple regression results recorded for variables "IAC" and "Gini index" were significant (RIAC2 = 60.09%, RGini2 = 30.83%), with emphasis on "Amazon biome" (DF = 33, p < 0.01, RBiome2 = 5.34%). Multivariate models resulted in wide explainability variation, depending on the number and type of available variable (54.47% ≤ Raj2 ≤ 70.83%), with emphasis on "IAC," "Ptot," "Purb," "Wton," "Lon," Area, "HDI," "Gini," and "SDG11" (p < 0.01). In conclusion, waste per capita estimation models can present variations and geographical interdependencies due to different variables and factors that reflect the current public policies and municipal solid waste management practices.

Indicadores de abastecimento de água e doenças de transmissão hídrica em municípios da Amazônia Oriental / Indicators of water supply and water transmission diseases in Eastern Amazonian municipalities

RESUMO O objetivo da pesquisa foi correlacionar indicadores operacionais de abastecimento de água com a frequência de doenças de notificação compulsória de transmissão hídrica em seis municípios do estado do Amapá, Brasil. A metodologia consistiu no tratamento estatístico de dados de doenças de notificação compulsória de transmissão hídrica, disponibilizados pela Superintendência de Vigilância em Saúde do Amapá (período de 2007 a 2017), com indicadores operacionais de abastecimento de água consolidados pelo Sistema Nacional de Informações sobre Saneamento (período de 1996 a 2017). Os resultados mostraram, por meio de séries de regressões, que seis entre 20 indicadores operacionais apresentaram significância e correlação positiva com a ocorrência de doenças diarreicas agudas, independentemente do município (Raj2 = 0,75, p < 0,05), com tendência progressiva em relação à expansão dos serviços de saneamento básico. Conclui-se que os seis indicadores operacionais apresentaram correlação positiva com a ocorrência de doenças diarreicas agudas. Entretanto, apesar de ter ocorrido no período uma sensível expansão do sistema operacional de abastecimento de água, também houve aumento dessas doenças, sugerindo uma crescente tendência temporal do deficit de saneamento básico oferecido nesses municípios.

ABSTRACT The objective of the research was to correlate operational water supply indicators with the frequency of diseases with compulsory notification of water transmission in six municipalities in the state of Amapá/Brazil. The methodology consisted of the statistical treatment of data on diseases with compulsory notification of water transmission, made available by the Health Superintendence of Surveillance of Amapá (Superintendência de Vigilância em Saúde do Amapá) (period from 2007 to 2017), with operational water supply indicators consolidated by the National Sanitation Information System (Sistema Nacional de Informações sobre Saneamento) (period from 1996 to 2017). The results showed, through a series of regressions, that six out of twenty operational indicators, presented significance and positive correlation with acute diarrheal diseases, regardless of the municipality (Raj2 = 0.75, p < 0.05), with a progressive trend of these diseases with the expansion of basic sanitation services. We concluded that the six operational indicators showed a positive correlation with acute diarrheal diseases. However, despite the expansion of the operating system of water supply in the period, there was also an increase in these diseases, suggesting a growing temporal trend of the basic sanitation deficit offered in these municipalities.

Modeling pollutant dispersion scenarios in high vessel-traffic areas of the Lower Amazon River.

Large ships are efficient in transporting oil and its derivatives. However, they can cause spills in the event of accidents. The aim of the study is to simulate oil dispersion processes in scenarios of likely accidents with ships traveling on sea routes interconnected with Amazonian ports and with the Atlantic Ocean. Navigation routes were based on traffic data to identify risk areas, as well as to compare them to data from the environmental (oil) sensitivity index and to results of numerical simulations of plumes dispersion. These three approaches were integrated to each other in order to assess potential environmental impacts of plumes on coastal biota and human populations. Scenarios results have indicated that the rainy season is the most critical period for plumes dispersion. But, depending on the emission point, plumes tend to remain close to the coast, extend up to 132 km within 72 h, affecting the biodiversity, protected areas and water supply systems from the urban areas.

Variação espaço-sazonal de parâmetros da qualidade da água subterrânea usada em consumo humano em Macapá, Amapá, Brasil / Space-seasonal variation of groundwater parameters used for human consumption in the city of Macapá, Amapá, Brazil

RESUMO O objetivo desta investigação foi avaliar a qualidade da água subterrânea consumida em 52 residências em Macapá, Amapá, Brasil. Parâmetros físico-químicos e microbiológicos (pH, turbidez, cor, Fe, NO3, Mn, Cl, NH3, Al, coliformes totais, E. coli) e parâmetros sanitários (bairro, filtro, características do poço, caixa d´água, destino do esgoto, distância do poço às fossas, alagamentos, doenças etc.) foram utilizados nesta quantificação. Amostras de água foram coletadas nas residências nos períodos seco (novembro de 2014) e chuvoso (abril-maio de 2015). Testes estatísticos identificaram intensa variação sazonal da qualidade da água (Mann-Whitney, p<0,05), porém média variabilidade espacial (Análise de Clusters, p<0,05). Concluiu-se que os mananciais subterrâneos estão com a qualidade da água comprometida e apresentam maior risco sanitário no período chuvoso, que varia de acordo com os diferentes parâmetros sanitários.

ABSTRACT The objective of this research is to evaluate the groundwater quality consumed in 52 residences in Macapá, Amapá, Brazil. Physical and chemical and microbiological parameters (pH, turbidity, color, Fe, NO3, Mn, Cl, NH3, Al, total coliforms, E. coli) and sanitary parameters (neighborhood, filter, well characteristics, water tank, sewage fate, distance from the well to the sinks, floods areas, diseases, etc.) were used in this quantification. Water samples were collected in the residences during the dry (November 2014) and wet (April-May 2015) periods. Statistical tests identified intense seasonal variation in the water quality (Mann-Whitney, p<0.05), but mean spatial variability (cluster analysis, p<0.05). In conclusion, the groundwater have damaged water quality, presenting a higher sanitary risk in the wet period and varying according to different sanitary parameters.

Potencial de vazão ambiental: método participativo para estimar vazão ambiental em rios na Amazônia / Potential of environmental flow: participatory method for determining environmental flow in hydropower's reservoirs in Amazon rivers

RESUMO O potencial de vazão ambiental (PVA) é um método alternativo de estimativa de vazão por considerar principalmente as características ecológicas, econômicas e culturais das bacias hidrográficas, reduzindo erros de estimativa na avaliação de impactos ambientais para implantação ou operação de usinas hidrelétricas (UHEs). O objetivo desta pesquisa foi adaptar a metodologia do PVA para grandes bacias da Amazônia usando abordagem holística. A metodologia de estimativa do PVA foi adaptada às bacias hidrográficas dos rios Tocantins, no Pará, Jari, no Amapá e Pará, e Araguari, no Amapá, em fase de operação e/ou instalação de UHEs. Os resultados sugerem que, nos rios Tocantins e Araguari, ambos sob influência de barramentos em operação, o parâmetro mais relevante do PVA foi o estresse hídrico. Diante dos impactos diretos dessas UHEs, a vazão é elevada e suficiente para manter o ecossistema ou a diversidade aquática durante o ano. Contudo, a resposta do método na bacia hidrográfica do rio Jari indicou o parâmetro dependência econômica como o mais crítico, já que o rio é intensamente utilizado para a locomoção pelos moradores do Pará e Amapá e, dessa forma, o cálculo da vazão por método não adequado comprometeria essa tão importante função do rio. Concluiu-se que o método PVA é uma ferramenta alternativa interessante à gestão de grandes bacias por ser flexível, adaptável e principalmente por permitir a participação dos agentes envolvidos nos processos decisórios.

ABSTRACT The potential of environmental flow (PVA) is an alternative method to estimate the flow as it mainly considers the ecological, economic and cultural characteristics of the basins, reducing estimation errors in the assessment of environmental impacts for deployment or operation of hydroelectric power plants (HPPs). The aim of this research was to adapt the PVA methodology for Amazon's large basins using holistic approach. The methodology for estimating the PVA was adapted to the watersheds of the rivers Tocantins, in Pará, Jari, in Amapá and Pará, and Araguari, in Amapá, under operation and/or final installation of HPPs. The results suggest that, in the Tocantins and Araguari rivers, both under the influence of dams in operation, the most relevant parameter of PVA was water stress. Taking into account the direct impact of these HPPs, the flow rate is high enough to keep the ecosystem or aquatic diversity during the whole year. However, the response of the PVA in the Jari river basin, in the ultimate construction phase, the most relevant parameter was the economic dependence, because the priority is the fluvial transport, and, in this way, estimating the flow by a non-adequate method would jeopardize this very important function. We concluded that the PVA method is an interesting tool for managing large basins, because it is flexible, adaptable and especially allowing the participation of the agents involved in the decision making processes.

Qualidade da água e índice trófico em rio de ecossistema tropical sob impacto ambiental / Water quality and trophic index in tropical riverine ecosystem under environmental impact

RESUMO O objetivo deste estudo foi quantificar a variabilidade espacial-temporal de 20 parâmetros físicos, químicos e microbiológicos da qualidade da água (incluindo o índice de estado trófico - IET) no Baixo Rio Jari, Amapá, típico de ecossistemas de várzea. Amostras de água foram coletadas trimestralmente em um trecho de 80 km de extensão do rio, entre setembro de 2013 e junho de 2014. Após análises, esses parâmetros foram comparados com valores estabelecidos pela Resolução CONAMA nº 357/2005 (Classe 2). Análises multivariadas (correlação, Kruskall-Wallis e cluster hierárquico) mostraram que o único parâmetro que variou espacialmente foi o oxigênio dissolvido (OD) (p<0,05), devido à forte influência da reaeração no trecho. Por outro lado, os demais parâmetros - cor, turbidez, condutividade elétrica, demanda bioquímica de oxigênio (DBO), NH3, P, pH, SO4, Mg, Cl-, coliformes termotolerantes (CT), Escherichia coli e clorofila-a - apresentaram apenas variação temporal significativa (p<0,05). Conclui-se que variação do IET ocorreu entre oligotrófico, mesotrófico e ultraoligotrófico, e os parâmetros cor, CT e E. coli estavam em não conformidade com a legislação, sugerindo influência relativa, mas significativa, tanto de impactos ambientais (urbanos, indústrias e da usina hidrelétrica Santo Antônio do Jari) quanto hidrológicos. Isso explica não só a variação sazonal de CT, E. coli e cor no período mais chuvoso (p<0,05), mas também a correlação entre cor, turbidez, temperatura, OD, Cl-, NH3, Mg, DBO, SO4, pH, E. coli, CT e clorofila-a ao longo do ciclo hidrológico e dinâmica sazonal (p<0,05), influenciando indiretamente o comportamento sazonal do IET (p<0,05).

ABSTRACT The objective of this investigation was to quantify the spatial-temporal variability of 20 physical, chemical and microbiological water quality parameters (including the trophic state index - TSI) in the Lower Jari River, Amapá, Brazil, typical of floodplain ecosystems. Water samples were collected quarterly in a stretch of 80 km of the river, from September 2013 to June 2014. After analysis, these parameters were compared with values established by the CONAMA Resolution 357/2005 (Class 2). Multivariate analysis (correlation, Kruskal-Wallis and cluster hierarchical) showed that the only parameter that varied spatially was the dissolved oxygen (DO) (p<0.05), due to the strong influence of the stretch reaeration. On the other hand, the other parameters - color, turbidity, electrical conductivity, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), NH3, P, pH, SO4, Mg, Cl-, thermotolerant coliforms (TC), Escherichia coli and chlorophyll-a - showed only significant temporal variation (p<0.05). We conclude that variation of the TSI ranged from oligotrophic, mesotrophic until ultraoligotrophic. Color, TC and E. coli parameters presented non-compliance with legislation, suggesting relative, but significant, influence, both of hydrological and environmental impacts (urban, industries and hydroelectric plant of Santo Antonio do Jari). Both factors explain not only the seasonal variation of TC, E. coli and color during the rainy season (p<0.05), but also the correlation among color, turbidity, temperature, DO, Cl-, NH3, Mg, DBO, SO4, pH, E. coli, TC and chlorophyll-a, along the hydrological cycle and its seasonal dynamics (p<0.05), indirectly influencing the behavior of the TSI (p<0.05).

Distribution pattern of crustacean ectoparasites of freshwater fish from Brazil.

The purpose of this study was to use the informations relating to parasite crustaceans species that was published over the course of one century (1913 to 2013), in order to search for infestation and distribution patterns among these ectoparasites in Brazilian freshwater fish species. This search was carried out on 445 samples of 119 host fish of 27 families within the orders Characiformes, Perciformes, Clupeiformes, Mugiliformes, Osteoglossiformes, Symbranchiformes, Tetraodontiformes and Siluriformes from various regions of Brazil. We organized different host-parasite systems into matrices grouping species at different taxonomic and infestation levels and according to host parameters. Five families of parasites (Ergasilidae, Argulidae, Lernaeidae, Lernaeopodidae and Cymothoidae) distributed into 76 species of 27 genera were analyzed in the host samples, which presented dominance of Ergasilidae species, mainly from the genus Ergasilus. Some crustaceans are host and site-specific, especially in relation to fish in particular habitats and lifestyles (e.g. Perulernaea gamitanae, Anphira branchialis and Riggia paranensis), while other parasites frequently have no preference (e.g. Lernaea cyprinacea and Braga patagonica). We found broadly similar distribution patterns for some crustacean species among the different localities, whereas other species showed well-defined geographical patterns, and these findings were discussed.

Distribution pattern of crustacean ectoparasites of freshwater fish from Brazil / Padrão de distribuição de crustáceos ectoparasitos de peixes de água doce do Brasil

The purpose of this study was to use the informations relating to parasite crustaceans species that was published over the course of one century (1913 to 2013), in order to search for infestation and distribution patterns among these ectoparasites in Brazilian freshwater fish species. This search was carried out on 445 samples of 119 host fish of 27 families within the orders Characiformes, Perciformes, Clupeiformes, Mugiliformes, Osteoglossiformes, Symbranchiformes, Tetraodontiformes and Siluriformes from various regions of Brazil. We organized different host-parasite systems into matrices grouping species at different taxonomic and infestation levels and according to host parameters. Five families of parasites (Ergasilidae, Argulidae, Lernaeidae, Lernaeopodidae and Cymothoidae) distributed into 76 species of 27 genera were analyzed in the host samples, which presented dominance of Ergasilidae species, mainly from the genus Ergasilus. Some crustaceans are host and site-specific, especially in relation to fish in particular habitats and lifestyles (e.g. Perulernaea gamitanae, Anphira branchialis and Riggia paranensis), while other parasites frequently have no preference (e.g. Lernaea cyprinacea and Braga patagonica). We found broadly similar distribution patterns for some crustacean species among the different localities, whereas other species showed well-defined geographical patterns, and these findings were discussed.

O objetivo deste estudo foi utilizar as informações relacionadas com espécies de crustáceos parasitas, que foram publicados durante um século (1913 a 2013), para procurar padrões de infestação e distribuição desses ectoparasitos em espécies de peixes de água doce do Brasil. Esta pesquisa foi realizada em 445 amostras de 119 peixes hospedeiros de 27 famílias de Characiformes, Perciformes, Clupeiformes, Mugiliformes, Osteoglossiiformes, Symbranchiformes, Tetraodontiformes e Siluriformes das diversas regiões do Brasil. Foram organizados em matrizes de agrupamento diferentes sistemas parasito-hospedeiros em diferentes níveis taxonômicos, níveis de infestação e parâmetros dos hospedeiros. Cinco famílias (Ergasilidae, Argulidae, Lernaeidae, Lernaeopodidae e Cymothoidae) de parasitos, distribuídos em 76 espécies de 27 gêneros, foram analisados em amostras dos hospedeiros, que apresentaram dominância de espécies Ergasilidae principalmente do gênero Ergasilus. Alguns crustáceos são hospedeiros e sítios-específicos no hospedeiro, especialmente peixes de determinados hábitat e estilo de vida (por exemplo, Perulernaea gamitanae, Anphira branchialis e Riggia paranensis), enquanto outros parasitos não têm qualquer preferência (por exemplo, Lernaea cyprinacea e Braga patagonica). Foram encontrados padrões muito semelhantes na distribuição de algumas espécies de crustáceos entre as diferentes localidades, enquanto outras espécies mostraram um padrão geográfico bem definido, o que foi discutido aqui.

Ballast water: a threat to the Amazon Basin.

Ballast water exchange (BWE) is the most efficient measure to control the invasion of exotic species from ships. This procedure is being used for merchant ships in national and international voyages. The ballast water (BW) salinity is the main parameter to evaluate the efficacy of the mid-ocean ballast water exchange. The vessels must report to the Port State Control (PSC), via ballast water report (BWR), where and how the mid-ocean BWE was performed. This measure allows the PSC to analyze this information before the ship arrives at the port, and to decide whether or not it should berth. Ship BW reporting forms were collected from the Captaincy of Santana and some ships were visited near the Port of Santana, located in Macapá (Amazon River), to evaluate the BW quality onboard. We evaluated data submitted in these BWR forms and concluded that the BWE efficacy might be compromised, because data contained in these BWR indicate that some ships did not change their BW. We found mistakes in filling the BWR forms and lack of information. Moreover, these ships had discharged BW with high level of salinity, Escherichia coli and total coliforms into the Amazon River. We concluded that the authorities of the Amazon Region need to develop more efficient proceedings to evaluate the ballast water reporting forms and BW quality, as there is potential risk of future invasion of exotic species in Brazilian ports.