Human Performance in Motorcycle Road Racing: A Review of the Literature.

Performance in motorcycle road racing is typically considered as the summation of interactions between rider, motorcycle, tires, and environment. Despite the substantial investments made towards the development of motorcycle technology and the business interests of manufacturers, published research focusing on the riders is relatively sparse, and a bike-centered mentality tends to dominate the sport. This manuscript reviews the known human performance aspects of motorcycle road racing and suggests directions for future research. In this sport, riders are exposed to a complex interaction of physiological, mechanical, and psychological stresses, alongside the ever-present potential for injury from crashes or localized muscular overload (i.e., chronic exertional forearm compartmental syndrome). The reviewed literature shows that riders involved in competitive road racing should develop proper levels of body composition, cardiovascular fitness, muscular strength, specific flexibility, and heat tolerance in addition to their all-important technical riding skills. Furthermore, specific resistance to inertial stresses, visual acuity, mental and physical resilience, psychological strategies, and behavioral awareness all appear to be meaningful contributors to successful performance. Further work is needed to profile riders according to their level to create evidence-based methodologies that improve performance. Additionally, future research should aim to improve safety for these athletes and deepen the understanding about the magnitude of metabolic, mental, technical, biomechanical, and muscular demands in relation to anthropometric characteristics, sex, categories of competition, and success rate.

Profiling the physical load on riders of top-level motorcycle circuit racing.

Manoeuvring a motorcycle at high-speed in official competition has been shown to expose riders to substantial and complex physiological and psychological demands, however few studies have analysed the physical load experienced by professional racers. This study aimed to quantify the physical stress experienced by riders and explore relationships between performance related variables (i.e. crashes). Performance and braking data were collected from official race reports from 2013 to 2015 of the top class of the FIM Road Racing Grand Prix World Championship. Top-level riders are exposed to a considerable volume (175 ± 42 brakes and 372 ± 48 leans to corner per race) of high intensity actions (>40% of brakes initiated at speeds higher than 260 km.h-1, and 13.2% over 300 km.h-1), where 1 out of every 4 braking actions generated inertial stresses greater than 10 m.s-2. Furthermore, the mean speed across competitions increased over the years (from 161.7 ± 6 km.h-1 to 164.5 ± 6 km.h-1), however no clear relationships between the amount of crashes and competition-related factors were found. Given the findings it would seem that riders could benefit from strength training specifically designed to prepare the body to counteract the repetitive inertial stresses of racing.

Trend Analysis of 20 Years of FIM Road Racing Grand Prix Motorcycle World Championship.

PURPOSE: The technological advancements in motorcycle road racing have ensured the evolution of motorcycle performance; however, it is unknown whether these advancements have resulted in increased speed and therefore risk. To better understand the top level of this sport and inform future regulations, performance-related strategies, and safety procedures, this study aimed to (1) analyze and describe how the performance characteristics of the top class of the Fédération Internationale de Motocyclisme Grand Prix motorcycle world championship (GPWC) have changed with time and (2) quantify potential interactions between performance data (ie, crashes, speed, and environmental conditions). METHODS: Variables such as top 10 riders' speed of racing, crashes, starting position of winner, participants, and environmental conditions were collected from official race reports from 1997 to 2016. Data standardization was also ensured by including only dry competitions in the analysis. RESULTS: The mean racing speed ranged from a minimum of 155 (7.27) km·h-1 (year 2000) to a maximum of 165 (6.48) km·h-1 (year 2015). Linear mixed-model analysis revealed that the variables year and class significantly influenced changes in mean speed (faster racing). Per race, 12-14% of starters (95% confidence interval) suffered a crash. No significant associations were found between crashes and mean speed, ground temperature, air temperature, or air humidity. CONCLUSIONS: The speed of dry racing of the top class of the GPWC has increased over a 20-y span. Motorcycle circuit racing riders should consider the importance of being prepared to cope with crashing events to minimize chances of injury.

Use of video observation and motor imagery on jumping performance in national rhythmic gymnastics athletes.

The aim of this study was to evaluate whether a mental training protocol could improve gymnastic jumping performance. Seventy-two rhythmic gymnasts were randomly divided into an experimental and control group. At baseline, experimental group completed the Movement Imagery Questionnaire Revised (MIQ-R) to assess the gymnast ability to generate movement imagery. A repeated measures design was used to compare two different types of training aimed at improving jumping performance: (a) video observation and PETTLEP mental training associated with physical practice, for the experimental group, and (b) physical practice alone for the control group. Before and after six weeks of training, their jumping performance was measured using the Hopping Test (HT), Drop Jump (DJ), and Counter Movement Jump (CMJ). Results revealed differences between jumping parameters F(1,71)=11.957; p<.01, and between groups F(1,71)=10.620; p<.01. In the experimental group there were significant correlations between imagery ability and the post-training Flight Time of the HT, r(34)=-.295, p<.05 and the DJ, r(34)=-.297, p<.05. The application of the protocol described herein was shown to improve jumping performance, thereby preserving the elite athlete's energy for other tasks.

Energy cost and energy sources during a simulated firefighting activity.

This study aimed to 1) analyze the energy requirement (VO2eq) and the contribution of the aerobic (VO2ex), anaerobic alactic (VO2al), and anaerobic lactic (VO2la-) energy sources of a simulated intervention; 2) ascertain differences in mean VO2 and heart rate (HR) during firefighting tasks; and 3) verify the relationship between time of job completion and the fitness level of firefighters. Twenty Italian firefighters (age = 32 ± 6 yr, VO2peak = 43.1 ± 4.9 mL·kg·min) performed 4 consecutive tasks (i.e., child rescue; 250-m run; find an exit; 250-m run) that required a VO2eq of 406.26 ± 73.91 mL·kg (VO2ex = 86 ± 5%; VO2al = 9 ± 3%; VO2la- = 5 ± 3%). After 30 minutes, the recovery HR (108 ± 15 beats·min) and VO2 (8.86±2.67mL·kg·min) were higher (p < 0.0001) than basal values (HR = 66 ± 8 beats·min; VO2 = 4.57 ± 1.07 mL·kg·min), indicating that passive recovery is insufficient in reducing the cardiovascular and thermoregulatory strain of the previous workload. Differences (p < 0.001) between tasks emerged for mean VO2 and HR, with a lack of significant correlation between the time of job completion and the firefighters' aerobic fitness. These findings indicate that unpredictable working conditions highly challenge expert firefighters who need adequate fitness levels to meet the requirements of their work. Practically, to enhance the fitness level of firefighters, specific interval training programs should include a wide variety of tasks requiring different intensities and decision-making strategies.

Heart rate and blood lactate concentration of male road-race motorcyclists.

Although motorcycling performance strongly depends on the characteristics of the motorcycles and capabilities of the riders, little information is available on the physiological profiles of riders. The aim of this study was to evaluate the physical load of official international men's road-race motorcycling competitions. Data were obtained from 34 male riders during the 2005 European Road-Race Motorcycling Championship (categories classified by size of engine: 125 GP, 250 GP, and 600 cc) during free practices, qualifying sessions, and official races. Participants' heart rates were recorded and blood lactate concentrations determined. During races, heart rates were most often above 90% of maximum heart rate (frequency of occurrence: 125 GP = 92.9%, s = 5.3; 250 GP = 93.6%, s = 7.3; 600 cc = 93.2%, s = 10.2). The heart rate distribution during riding showed main effects between phases of competition, engine sizes, and different portions of the race (P < 0.001). No difference was observed between riders on and not on the podium at the end of the race. Peak blood lactate concentrations after the qualifying sessions (5.2 mmol . l(-1), s = 1.2) and official races (6.0 mmol . l(-1), s = 2.1) were higher (P < 0.001) than at baseline. The present results show that road-race motorcycling imposes a high load on the riders, who should possess adequate fitness to maintain high-speed rides and minimize the effects of fatigue during competition.

Italian women's television coverage and audience during the 2004 Athens Olympic Games.

This study aimed at determining the amount of Italian television coverage dedicated to men's and women's sport and the number of male and female viewers during the 2004 Summer Olympic Games. AUDITEL-AGB Nielsen Media Research Italia provided the TV airtime data for the sport events broadcast, which were classified into three categories: men-only, women-only, and mixed-gender. The viewer sample was divided by age and gender and included three audience parameters: mean audience, share, and appreciation index. The last item is calculated from the program duration, audience permanence, and the share related to programs broadcast by other Italian channels. In particular, the appreciation index was used to investigate the relationship between (a) the viewer's and sport participants' gender and (b) the effect of Italian participation and expectations for sport achievement. The data showed that Italian male athletes outnumbered their female counterparts. Women's sport was allotted significantly less airtime than men's sport, but this imbalance was not proportional to the gender difference in the overall athletes' participation in the Games. Although the female audience represented 45% of the total, a significantly higher male mean audience and share were found. On the other hand, the appreciation of men's and women's sport events was balanced after equating for differences in media coverage. Moreover sport achievement might have a positive effect on the trend toward equality of gender coverage, indicating that a global multisport event such as the Olympic Games is central to communicating a national image and identity independently of the athletes' gender.