Protein Binder Toolbox for Studies of Solute Carrier Transporters.

Transporters of the solute carrier superfamily (SLCs) are responsible for the transmembrane traffic of the majority of chemical substances in cells and tissues and are therefore of fundamental biological importance. As is often the case with membrane proteins that can be heavily glycosylated, a lack of reliable high-affinity binders hinders their functional analysis. Purifying and reconstituting transmembrane proteins in their lipidic environments remains challenging and standard approaches to generate binders for multi-transmembrane proteins, such as SLCs, channels or G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are lacking. While generating protein binders to 27 SLCs, we produced full length protein or cell lines as input material for binder generation by selected binder generation platforms. As a result, we obtained 525 binders for 22 SLCs. We validated the binders with a cell-based validation workflow using immunofluorescent and immunoprecipitation methods to process all obtained binders. Finally, we demonstrated the potential applications of the binders that passed our validation pipeline in structural, biochemical, and biological applications using the exemplary protein SLC12A6, an ion transporter relevant in human disease. With this work, we were able to generate easily renewable and highly specific binders against SLCs, which will greatly facilitate the study of this neglected protein family. We hope that the process will serve as blueprint for the generation of binders against the entire superfamily of SLC transporters.

Structural basis for inhibition of the lysosomal two-pore channel TPC2 by a small molecule antagonist.

Two pore channels are lysosomal cation channels with crucial roles in tumor angiogenesis and viral release from endosomes. Inhibition of the two-pore channel 2 (TPC2) has emerged as potential therapeutic strategy for the treatment of cancers and viral infections, including Ebola and COVID-19. Here, we demonstrate that antagonist SG-094, a synthetic analog of the Chinese alkaloid medicine tetrandrine with increased potency and reduced toxicity, induces asymmetrical structural changes leading to a single binding pocket at only one intersubunit interface within the asymmetrical dimer. Supported by functional characterization of mutants by Ca2+ imaging and patch clamp experiments, we identify key residues in S1 and S4 involved in compound binding to the voltage sensing domain II. SG-094 arrests IIS4 in a downward shifted state which prevents pore opening via the IIS4/S5 linker, hence resembling gating modifiers of canonical VGICs. These findings may guide the rational development of new therapeutics antagonizing TPC2 activity.

High-Throughput Expression and Purification of Human Solute Carriers for Structural and Biochemical Studies.

Solute carriers (SLCs) are membrane transporters that import and export a range of endogenous and exogenous substrates, including ions, nutrients, metabolites, neurotransmitters, and pharmaceuticals. Despite having emerged as attractive therapeutic targets and markers of disease, this group of proteins is still relatively underdrugged by current pharmaceuticals. Drug discovery projects for these transporters are impeded by limited structural, functional, and physiological knowledge, ultimately due to the difficulties in the expression and purification of this class of membrane-embedded proteins. Here, we demonstrate methods to obtain high-purity, milligram quantities of human SLC transporter proteins using codon-optimized gene sequences. In conjunction with a systematic exploration of construct design and high-throughput expression, these protocols ensure the preservation of the structural integrity and biochemical activity of the target proteins. We also highlight critical steps in the eukaryotic cell expression, affinity purification, and size-exclusion chromatography of these proteins. Ultimately, this workflow yields pure, functionally active, and stable protein preparations suitable for high-resolution structure determination, transport studies, small-molecule engagement assays, and high-throughput in vitro screening.

Structural characterization of human urea transporters UT-A and UT-B and their inhibition.

In this study, we present the structures of human urea transporters UT-A and UT-B to characterize them at molecular level and to detail the mechanism of UT-B inhibition by its selective inhibitor, UTBinh-14. High-resolution structures of both transporters establish the structural basis for the inhibitor's selectivity to UT-B, and the identification of multiple binding sites for the inhibitor will aid with the development of drug lead molecules targeting both transporters. Our study also discovers phospholipids associating with the urea transporters by combining structural observations, native MS, and lipidomics analysis. These insights improve our understanding of urea transporter function at a molecular level and provide a blueprint for a structure-guided design of therapeutics targeting these transporters.

Mapping the Binding Interactions between Human Gasdermin D and Human Caspase-1 Using Carbene Footprinting.

Carbene footprinting is a recently developed mass spectrometry-based chemical labeling technique that probes protein interactions and conformation. Here, we use the methodology to investigate binding interactions between the protease human Caspase-1 (C285A) and full-length human Gasdermin D (hGSDMD), which are important in inflammatory cell death. GSDMD is cleaved by Caspase-1, releasing its N-terminal domain which oligomerizes in the membrane to form large pores, resulting in lytic cell death. Regions of reduced carbene labeling (masking), caused by protein binding, were observed for each partner in the presence of the other and were consistent with hCaspase-1 exosite and active-site interactions. Most notably, the results showed direct occupancy of hCaspase-1 (C285A) active-site by hGSDMD for the first time. Differential carbene labeling of full-length hGSDMD and the pore-forming N-terminal domain assembled in liposomes showed masking of the latter, consistent with oligomeric assembly and insertion into the lipid bilayer. Interactions between Caspase-1 and the specific inhibitor VRT-043198 were also studied by this approach. In wild-type hCaspase-1, VRT-043198 modifies the active-site Cys285 through the formation of a S,O-hemiacetal. Here, we showed by carbene labeling that this inhibitor can noncovalently occupy the active site of a C285A mutant. These findings add considerably to our knowledge of the hCaspase-1-hGSDMD system.

Cryo-EM structure of the human Kv3.1 channel reveals gating control by the cytoplasmic T1 domain.

Kv3 channels have distinctive gating kinetics tailored for rapid repolarization in fast-spiking neurons. Malfunction of this process due to genetic variants in the KCNC1 gene causes severe epileptic disorders, yet the structural determinants for the unusual gating properties remain elusive. Here, we present cryo-electron microscopy structures of the human Kv3.1a channel, revealing a unique arrangement of the cytoplasmic tetramerization domain T1 which facilitates interactions with C-terminal axonal targeting motif and key components of the gating machinery. Additional interactions between S1/S2 linker and turret domain strengthen the interface between voltage sensor and pore domain. Supported by molecular dynamics simulations, electrophysiological and mutational analyses, we identify several residues in the S4/S5 linker which influence the gating kinetics and an electrostatic interaction between acidic residues in α6 of T1 and R449 in the pore-flanking S6T helices. These findings provide insights into gating control and disease mechanisms and may guide strategies for the design of pharmaceutical drugs targeting Kv3 channels.

Crystal structure of the Tspan15 LEL domain reveals a conserved ADAM10 binding site.

Tetraspanins are four-pass transmembrane proteins that function by regulating trafficking of partner proteins and organizing signaling complexes in the membrane. Tspan15, one of a six-member TspanC8 subfamily, forms a complex that regulates the trafficking, maturation, and substrate selectivity of the transmembrane protease ADAM10, an essential enzyme in mammalian physiology that cleaves a wide variety of membrane-anchored substrates, including Notch receptors, amyloid precursor protein, cadherins, and growth factors. We present here crystal structures of the Tspan15 large extracellular loop (LEL) required for functional association with ADAM10 both in isolation and in complex with the Fab fragment of an anti-Tspan15 antibody. Comparison of the Tspan15 LEL with other tetraspanin LEL structures shows that a core helical framework buttresses a variable region that structurally diverges among LELs. Using co-immunoprecipitation and a cellular N-cadherin cleavage assay, we identify a site on Tspan15 required for both ADAM10 binding and promoting substrate cleavage.

Phospho-regulation, nucleotide binding and ion access control in potassium-chloride cotransporters.

Potassium-coupled chloride transporters (KCCs) play crucial roles in regulating cell volume and intracellular chloride concentration. They are characteristically inhibited under isotonic conditions via phospho-regulatory sites located within the cytoplasmic termini. Decreased inhibitory phosphorylation in response to hypotonic cell swelling stimulates transport activity, and dysfunction of this regulatory process has been associated with various human diseases. Here, we present cryo-EM structures of human KCC3b and KCC1, revealing structural determinants for phospho-regulation in both N- and C-termini. We show that phospho-mimetic KCC3b is arrested in an inward-facing state in which intracellular ion access is blocked by extensive contacts with the N-terminus. In another mutant with increased isotonic transport activity, KCC1Δ19, this interdomain interaction is absent, likely due to a unique phospho-regulatory site in the KCC1 N-terminus. Furthermore, we map additional phosphorylation sites as well as a previously unknown ATP/ADP-binding pocket in the large C-terminal domain and show enhanced thermal stabilization of other CCCs by adenine nucleotides. These findings provide fundamentally new insights into the complex regulation of KCCs and may unlock innovative strategies for drug development.

Expression Screening of Human Integral Membrane Proteins Using BacMam.

This chapter describes the step-by-step methods employed by the Structural Genomics Consortium (SGC) for screening and producing proteins in the BacMam system. This eukaryotic expression system was selected and a screening process established in 2016 to enable production of highly challenging human integral membrane proteins (IMPs), which are a significant component of our target list. Here, we discuss our recently developed platform for identifying expression and monodispersity of IMPs from 3 mL of HEK293 cells.

X-ray structures of AMPA receptor-cone snail toxin complexes illuminate activation mechanism.

AMPA-sensitive glutamate receptors are crucial to the structural and dynamic properties of the brain, to the development and function of the central nervous system, and to the treatment of neurological conditions from depression to cognitive impairment. However, the molecular principles underlying AMPA receptor activation have remained elusive. We determined multiple x-ray crystal structures of the GluA2 AMPA receptor in complex with a Conus striatus cone snail toxin, a positive allosteric modulator, and orthosteric agonists, at 3.8 to 4.1 angstrom resolution. We show how the toxin acts like a straightjacket on the ligand-binding domain (LBD) "gating ring," restraining the domains via both intra- and interdimer cross-links such that agonist-induced closure of the LBD "clamshells" is transduced into an irislike expansion of the gating ring. By structural analysis of activation-enhancing mutants, we show how the expansion of the LBD gating ring results in pulling forces on the M3 helices that, in turn, are coupled to ion channel gating.

Structure and dynamics of AMPA receptor GluA2 in resting, pre-open, and desensitized states.

Ionotropic glutamate receptors (iGluRs) mediate the majority of fast excitatory signaling in the nervous system. Despite the profound importance of iGluRs to neurotransmission, little is known about the structures and dynamics of intact receptors in distinct functional states. Here, we elucidate the structures of the intact GluA2 AMPA receptor in an apo resting/closed state, in an activated/pre-open state bound with partial agonists and a positive allosteric modulator, and in a desensitized/closed state in complex with fluorowilliardiine. To probe the conformational properties of these states, we carried out double electron-electron resonance experiments on cysteine mutants and cryoelectron microscopy studies. We show how agonist binding modulates the conformation of the ligand-binding domain "layer" of the intact receptors and how, upon desensitization, the receptor undergoes large conformational rearrangements of the amino-terminal and ligand-binding domains. We define mechanistic principles by which to understand antagonism, activation, and desensitization in AMPA iGluRs.

Measuring cation transport by Na,K- and H,K-ATPase in Xenopus oocytes by atomic absorption spectrophotometry: an alternative to radioisotope assays.

Whereas cation transport by the electrogenic membrane transporter Na(+),K(+)-ATPase can be measured by electrophysiology, the electroneutrally operating gastric H(+),K(+)-ATPase is more difficult to investigate. Many transport assays utilize radioisotopes to achieve a sufficient signal-to-noise ratio, however, the necessary security measures impose severe restrictions regarding human exposure or assay design. Furthermore, ion transport across cell membranes is critically influenced by the membrane potential, which is not straightforwardly controlled in cell culture or in proteoliposome preparations. Here, we make use of the outstanding sensitivity of atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS) towards trace amounts of chemical elements to measure Rb(+) or Li(+) transport by Na(+),K(+)- or gastric H(+),K(+)-ATPase in single cells. Using Xenopus oocytes as expression system, we determine the amount of Rb(+) (Li(+)) transported into the cells by measuring samples of single-oocyte homogenates in an AAS device equipped with a transversely heated graphite atomizer (THGA) furnace, which is loaded from an autosampler. Since the background of unspecific Rb(+) uptake into control oocytes or during application of ATPase-specific inhibitors is very small, it is possible to implement complex kinetic assay schemes involving a large number of experimental conditions simultaneously, or to compare the transport capacity and kinetics of site-specifically mutated transporters with high precision. Furthermore, since cation uptake is determined on single cells, the flux experiments can be carried out in combination with two-electrode voltage-clamping (TEVC) to achieve accurate control of the membrane potential and current. This allowed e.g. to quantitatively determine the 3Na(+)/2K(+) transport stoichiometry of the Na(+),K(+)-ATPase and enabled for the first time to investigate the voltage dependence of cation transport by the electroneutrally operating gastric H(+),K(+)-ATPase. In principle, the assay is not limited to K(+)-transporting membrane proteins, but it may work equally well to address the activity of heavy or transition metal transporters, or uptake of chemical elements by endocytotic processes.

Control of gastric H,K-ATPase activity by cations, voltage and intracellular pH analyzed by voltage clamp fluorometry in Xenopus oocytes.

Whereas electrogenic partial reactions of the Na,K-ATPase have been studied in depth, much less is known about the influence of the membrane potential on the electroneutrally operating gastric H,K-ATPase. In this work, we investigated site-specifically fluorescence-labeled H,K-ATPase expressed in Xenopus oocytes by voltage clamp fluorometry to monitor the voltage-dependent distribution between E(1)P and E(2)P states and measured Rb(+) uptake under various ionic and pH conditions. The steady-state E(1)P/E(2)P distribution, as indicated by the voltage-dependent fluorescence amplitudes and the Rb(+) uptake activity were highly sensitive to small changes in intracellular pH, whereas even large extracellular pH changes affected neither the E(1)P/E(2)P distribution nor transport activity. Notably, intracellular acidification by approximately 0.5 pH units shifted V(0.5), the voltage, at which the E(1)P/E(2)P ratio is 50∶50, by -100 mV. This was paralleled by an approximately two-fold acceleration of the forward rate constant of the E(1)P→E(2)P transition and a similar increase in the rate of steady-state cation transport. The temperature dependence of Rb(+) uptake yielded an activation energy of ∼90 kJ/mol, suggesting that ion transport is rate-limited by a major conformational transition. The pronounced sensitivity towards intracellular pH suggests that proton uptake from the cytoplasmic side controls the level of phosphoenzyme entering the E(1)P→E(2)P conformational transition, thus limiting ion transport of the gastric H,K-ATPase. These findings highlight the significance of cellular mechanisms contributing to increased proton availability in the cytoplasm of gastric parietal cells. Furthermore, we show that extracellular Na(+) profoundly alters the voltage-dependent E(1)P/E(2)P distribution indicating that Na(+) ions can act as surrogates for protons regarding the E(2)P→E(1)P transition. The complexity of the intra- and extracellular cation effects can be rationalized by a kinetic model suggesting that cations reach the binding sites through a rather high-field intra- and a rather low-field extracellular access channel, with fractional electrical distances of ∼0.5 and ∼0.2, respectively.

Deceleration of the E1P-E2P transition and ion transport by mutation of potentially salt bridge-forming residues Lys-791 and Glu-820 in gastric H+/K+-ATPase.

A lysine residue within the highly conserved center of the fifth transmembrane segment in P(IIC)-type ATPase α-subunits is uniquely found in H,K-ATPases instead of a serine in all Na,K-ATPase isoforms. Because previous studies suggested a prominent role of this residue in determining the electrogenicity of non-gastric H,K-ATPase and in pK(a) modulation of the proton-translocating residues in the gastric H,K-ATPases as well, we investigated its functional significance for ion transport by expressing several Lys-791 variants of the gastric H,K-ATPase in Xenopus oocytes. Although the mutant proteins were all detected at the cell surface, none of the investigated mutants displayed any measurable K(+)-induced stationary currents. In Rb(+) uptake measurements, replacement of Lys-791 by Arg, Ala, Ser, and Glu substantially impaired transport activity and reduced the sensitivity toward the E(2)-specific inhibitor SCH28080. Furthermore, voltage clamp fluorometry using a reporter site in the TM5/TM6 loop for labeling with tetra-methylrhodamine-6-maleimide revealed markedly changed fluorescence signals. All four investigated mutants exhibited a strong shift toward the E(1)P state, in agreement with their reduced SCH28080 sensitivity, and an about 5-10-fold decreased forward rate constant of the E(1)P ↔ E(2)P conformational transition, thus explaining the E(1)P shift and the reduced Rb(+) transport activity. When Glu-820 in TM6 adjacent to Lys-791 was replaced by non-charged or positively charged amino acids, severe effects on fluorescence signals and Rb(+) transport were also observed, whereas substitution by aspartate was less disturbing. These results suggest that formation of an E(2)P-stabilizing interhelical salt bridge is essential to prevent futile proton exchange cycles of H(+) pumping P-type ATPases.

Hyperpolarization-activated inward leakage currents caused by deletion or mutation of carboxy-terminal tyrosines of the Na+/K+-ATPase {alpha} subunit.

The Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase mediates electrogenic transport by exporting three Na(+) ions in exchange for two K(+) ions across the cell membrane per adenosine triphosphate molecule. The location of two Rb(+) ions in the crystal structures of the Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase has defined two "common" cation binding sites, I and II, which accommodate Na(+) or K(+) ions during transport. The configuration of site III is still unknown, but the crystal structure has suggested a critical role of the carboxy-terminal KETYY motif for the formation of this "unique" Na(+) binding site. Our two-electrode voltage clamp experiments on Xenopus oocytes show that deletion of two tyrosines at the carboxy terminus of the human Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase alpha(2) subunit decreases the affinity for extracellular and intracellular Na(+), in agreement with previous biochemical studies. Apparently, the DeltaYY deletion changes Na(+) affinity at site III but leaves the common sites unaffected, whereas the more extensive DeltaKETYY deletion affects the unique site and the common sites as well. In the absence of extracellular K(+), the DeltaYY construct mediated ouabain-sensitive, hyperpolarization-activated inward currents, which were Na(+) dependent and increased with acidification. Furthermore, the voltage dependence of rate constants from transient currents under Na(+)/Na(+) exchange conditions was reversed, and the amounts of charge transported upon voltage pulses from a certain holding potential to hyperpolarizing potentials and back were unequal. These findings are incompatible with a reversible and exclusively extracellular Na(+) release/binding mechanism. In analogy to the mechanism proposed for the H(+) leak currents of the wild-type Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase, we suggest that the DeltaYY deletion lowers the energy barrier for the intracellular Na(+) occlusion reaction, thus destabilizing the Na(+)-occluded state and enabling inward leak currents. The leakage currents are prevented by aromatic amino acids at the carboxy terminus. Thus, the carboxy terminus of the Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase alpha subunit represents a structural and functional relay between Na(+) binding site III and the intracellular cation occlusion gate.

E2P state stabilization by the N-terminal tail of the H,K-ATPase beta-subunit is critical for efficient proton pumping under in vivo conditions.

The catalytic alpha-subunits of Na,K- and H,K-ATPase require an accessory beta-subunit for proper folding, maturation, and plasma membrane delivery but also for cation transport. To investigate the functional significance of the beta-N terminus of the gastric H,K-ATPase in vivo, several N-terminally truncated beta-variants were expressed in Xenopus oocytes, together with the S806C alpha-subunit variant. Upon labeling with the reporter fluorophore tetramethylrho da mine-6-maleimide, this construct can be used to determine the voltage-dependent distribution between E(1)P/E(2)P states. Whereas the E(1)P/E(2)P conformational equilibrium was unaffected for the shorter N-terminal deletions betaDelta4 and betaDelta8, we observed significant shifts toward E(1)P for the two larger deletions betaDelta13 and betaDelta29. Moreover, the reduced DeltaF/F ratios of betaDelta13 and betaDelta29 indicated an increased reverse reaction via E(2)P --> E(1)P + ADP --> E(1) + ATP, because cell surface expression was completely unaffected. This interpretation is supported by the reduced sensitivity of the mutants toward the E(2)P-specific inhibitor SCH28080, which becomes especially apparent at high concentrations (100 microm). Despite unaltered apparent Rb(+) affinities, the maximal Rb(+) uptake of these mutants was also significantly lowered. Considering the two putative interaction sites between the beta-N terminus and alpha-subunit revealed by the recent cryo-EM structure, the N-terminal tail of the H,K-ATPase beta-subunit may stabilize the pump in the E(2)P conformation, thereby increasing the efficiency of proton release against the million-fold proton gradient of the stomach lumen. Finally, we demonstrate that a similar truncation of the beta-N terminus of the closely related Na,K-ATPase does not affect the E(1)P/E(2)P distribution or pump activity, indicating that the E(2)P-stabilizing effect by the beta-N terminus is apparently a unique property of the H,K-ATPase.

Impaired plasma membrane targeting or protein stability by certain ATP1A2 mutations identified in sporadic or familial hemiplegic migraine.

Mutations in three different genes have been implicated in familial hemiplegic migraine (FHM), two of them code for neuronal voltage-gated cation channels, CACNA1A and SCN1A, while the third encodes ATP1A2, the alpha(2)-isoform of the Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase's catalytic subunit, thus classifying FHM as an ion channel/ion transporter disorder. The Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase maintains the physiological gradients for Na(+) and K(+) ions and is therefore critical for the activity of ion channels and transporters involved in neurotransmitter uptake or Ca(2+) signaling. Diverse functional abnormalities have been identified for disease-linked ATP1A2 mutations, which reach far beyond simple loss-of-function. We have shown recently that ATP1A2 mutations frequently lead to changes in the enzyme's voltage-dependent properties, kinetics or apparent cation affinities. Here, we present functional data on a so far uncharacterized set of ATP1A2 mutations (G301R, R908Q and P979L) upon expression in Xenopus oocytes and HEK293FT cells, and provide evidence for a novel pathophysiological mechanism. Whereas the G301R mutant was inactive, no functional changes were observed for mutants R908Q and P979L in the oocyte expression system. However, the R908Q mutant was less effectively expressed in the plasma membrane of oocytes, making it the first missense mutation to result in defective plasma membrane targeting. Notably, the P979L mutant exhibited the same cellular expression profile as the wild-type protein, both in Xenopus oocytes and in transfected HEK293FT cells grown at 28 degrees C, but much less P979L protein was found upon cell growth at 37 degrees C, showing for the first time that temperature-sensitive effects on protein stability can underlie ATP1A2 loss-of-function.

Functional significance of E2 state stabilization by specific alpha/beta-subunit interactions of Na,K- and H,K-ATPase.

The beta-subunits of Na,K-ATPase and H,K-ATPase have important functions in maturation and plasma membrane targeting of the catalytic alpha-subunit but also modulate the transport activity of the holoenzymes. In this study, we show that tryptophan replacement of two highly conserved tyrosines in the transmembrane domain of both Na,K- and gastric H,K-ATPase beta-subunits resulted in considerable shifts of the voltage-dependent E1P/E2P distributions toward the E1P state as inferred from presteady-state current and voltage clamp fluorometric measurements of tetramethylrhodamine-6-maleimide-labeled ATPases. The shifts in conformational equilibria were accompanied by significant decreases in the apparent affinities for extracellular K+ that were moderate for the Na,K-ATPase beta-(Y39W,Y43W) mutation but much more pronounced for the corresponding H,K-ATPase beta-(Y44W,Y48W) variant. Moreover in the Na,K-ATPase beta-(Y39W,Y43W) mutant, the apparent rate constant for reverse binding of extracellular Na+ and the subsequent E2P-E1P conversion, as determined from transient current kinetics, was significantly accelerated, resulting in enhanced Na+ competition for extracellular K+ binding especially at extremely negative potentials. Analogously the reverse binding of extracellular protons and subsequent E2P-E1P conversion was accelerated by the H,K-ATPase beta-(Y44W,Y48W) mutation, and H+ secretion was strongly impaired. Remarkably tryptophan replacements of residues in the M7 segment of Na,K- and H,K-ATPase alpha-subunits, which are at interacting distance to the beta-tyrosines, resulted in similar E1 shifts, indicating their participation in stabilization of E2. Thus, interactions between selected residues within the transmembrane regions of alpha- and beta-subunits of P2C-type ATPases exert an E2-stabilizing effect, which is of particular importance for efficient H+ pumping by H,K-ATPase under in vivo conditions.

A D-pathway mutation decouples the Paracoccus denitrificans cytochrome c oxidase by altering the side-chain orientation of a distant conserved glutamate.

Asparagine 131, located near the cytoplasmic entrance of the D-pathway in subunit I of the Paracoccus denitrificans aa(3) cytochrome c oxidase, is a residue crucial for proton pumping. When replaced by an aspartate, the mutant enzyme is completely decoupled: while retaining full cytochrome c oxidation activity, it does not pump protons. The same phenotype is observed for two other substitutions at this position (N131E and N131C), whereas a conservative replacement by glutamine affects both activities of the enzyme. The N131D variant oxidase was crystallized and its structure was solved to 2.32-A resolution, revealing no significant overall change in the protein structure when compared with the wild type (WT), except for an alternative orientation of the E278 side chain in addition to its WT conformation. Moreover, remarkable differences in the crystallographically resolved chain of water molecules in the D-pathway are found for the variant: four water molecules that are observed in the water chain between N131 and E278 in the WT structure are not visible in the variant, indicating a higher mobility of these water molecules. Electrochemically induced Fourier transform infrared difference spectra of decoupled mutants confirm that the protonation state of E278 is unaltered by these mutations but indicate a distinct perturbation in the hydrogen-bonding environment of this residue. Furthermore, they suggest that the carboxylate side chain of the N131D mutant is deprotonated. These findings are discussed in terms of their mechanistic implications for proton routing through the D-pathway of cytochrome c oxidase.

Diverse functional consequences of mutations in the Na+/K+-ATPase alpha2-subunit causing familial hemiplegic migraine type 2.

Mutations in ATP1A2, the gene coding for the Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase alpha(2)-subunit, are associated with both familial hemiplegic migraine and sporadic cases of hemiplegic migraine. In this study, we examined the functional properties of 11 ATP1A2 mutations associated with familial or sporadic hemiplegic migraine, including missense mutations (T263M, T376M, R383H, A606T, R763H, M829R, R834Q, R937P, and X1021R), a deletion mutant (del(K935-S940)ins(I)), and a frameshift mutation (S966fs). According to the Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase crystal structure, a subset of the mutated residues (Ala(606), Arg(763), Met(829), and Arg(834)) is involved in important interdomain H-bond networks, and the C terminus of the enzyme, which is elongated by the X1021R mutation, has been implicated in voltage dependence and formation of a third Na(+)-binding site. Upon heterologous expression in Xenopus oocytes, the analysis of electrogenic transport properties, Rb(+) uptake, and protein expression revealed pronounced and markedly diverse functional alterations in all ATP1A2 mutants. Abnormalities included a complete loss of function (T376M), impaired plasma membrane expression (del(K935-S940)ins(I) and S966fs), and altered apparent affinities for extracellular cations or reduced enzyme turnover (R383H, A606T, R763H, R834Q, and X1021R). In addition, changes in the voltage dependence of pump currents and the increased rate constants of the voltage jump-induced redistribution between E(1)P and E(2)P states were observed. Thus, mutations that disrupt distinct interdomain H-bond patterns can cause abnormal conformational flexibility and exert long range consequences on apparent cation affinities or voltage dependence. Of interest, the X1021R mutation severely impaired voltage dependence and kinetics of Na(+)-translocating partial reactions, corroborating the critical role of the C terminus of Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase in these processes.