Auto-avaliação do estado de saúde no Brasil: análise dos dados da PNAD/2003 / Health self-rating in Brazil: analysis of data of the PNAD/2003

Este trabalho confirma que os principais determinantes da auto-avaliação do estado de saúde são as condições econômicas. Surgem dois resultados importantes adicionais. O primeiro mostra que além das condições atuais, medidas pela renda per capita do domicílio, têm grande importância as condições pregressas, medidas por um índice de bens que serve como indicador da capacidade de acumulação de riqueza do domicílio. Fica também demonstrada a grande importância da escolaridade como mediadora das condições econômicas na determinação da avaliação de saúde. Foram usados modelos de regressão logística, usando sexo e idade como co-variáveis para quantificar a importância dos vários determinantes, que incluíram também a área rural de residência, a cor da pele ou raça da pessoa, bem como quem forneceu a informação na entrevista. A avaliação de saúde ruim ou muito ruim é menor na área rural e aumenta marginalmente quando a pessoa que informa é "outro morador do próprio domicílio". Depois de ajustada para as co-variáveis (idade e sexo) e as condições econômicas e escolaridade, não existe nenhuma relação da avaliação ruim ou muito ruim com a cor da pele ou raça. É também feita a sugestão de mudar de posição a pergunta sobre auto-avaliação no questionário de futuros inquéritos.

This paper confirms the economic situation as the main determinant in the health self-rating of individuals. There are however two important additional results: The first shows that besides the current situation the former capacity of the household to accumulate wealth - measured by means of an index of assets - have independent effects on the rating of bad or very bad health. Secondly, we found that the economic status was strongly influenced by the educational level. Considering sex and age as co-variables, we developed logistic models to quantify the importance of the socio-economic determinants, including: reside in a rural area; which household member responded to the interview; skin color/race of the individual. Bad or very bad health self-rating is less frequent in rural areas and increases slightly when the respondent is "another resident of the same household". After adjustment of the co-variables (sex and age) and the economic and educational characteristics, we found that skin color/race were not significant as determinants of self-rated bad or very bad health. We also suggest that in future surveys the questions regarding health self-rating should be moved to another position in the questionnaire.

Strengthening health information systems to address health equity challenges.

Special studies and isolated initiatives over the past several decades in low-, middle- and high-income countries have consistently shown inequalities in health among socioeconomic groups and by gender, race or ethnicity, geographical area and other measures associated with social advantage. Significant health inequalities linked to social (dis)advantage rather than to inherent biological differences are generally considered unfair or inequitable. Such health inequities are the main object of health development efforts, including global targets such as the Millennium Development Goals, which require monitoring to evaluate progress. However, most national health information systems (HIS) lack key information needed to assess and address health inequities, namely, reliable, longitudinal and representative data linking measures of health with measures of social status or advantage at the individual or small-area level. Without empirical documentation and monitoring of such inequities, as well as country-level capacity to use this information for effective planning and monitoring of progress in response to interventions, movement towards equity is unlikely to occur. This paper reviews core information requirements and potential databases and proposes short-term and longer term strategies for strengthening the capabilities of HIS for the analysis of health equity and discusses HIS-related entry points for supporting a culture of equity-oriented decision-making and policy development.

Research on health inequalities in Latin America and the Caribbean: bibliometric analysis (1971-2000) and descriptive content analysis (1971-1995).

We conducted a bibliometric and content analysis of research on health inequalities produced in Latin American and Caribbean countries. In our bibliometric analysis (n = 576), we used indexed material published between 1971 and 2000. The content analysis (n = 269) covered the period 1971 to 1995 and included unpublished material. We found recent rapid growth in overall output. Brazil, Chile, and Mexico contributed mostly empirical research, while Ecuador and Argentina produced more conceptual studies. We found, in the literature reviewed, a relative neglect of gender, race, and ethnicity issues. We also found remarkable diversity in research designs, however, along with strong consideration of ecological and ethnographic methods absent in other research traditions.

Inequities in access to and use of drinking water services in Latin America and the Caribbean.

OBJECTIVE: To identify and evaluate inequities in access to drinking water services as reflected in household per capita expenditure on water, and to determine what proportion of household expenditures is spent on water in 11 countries of Latin America and the Caribbean. METHODS: Using data from multi-purpose household surveys (such as the Living Standards Measurement Survey Study) conducted in 11 countries from 1995 to 1999, the availability of drinking water as well as total and per capita household expenditures on drinking water were analyzed in light of socioeconomic parameters, such as urban vs. rural setting, household income, type and regularity of water supply service, time spent obtaining water in homes not served by running water, and type of water-purifying treatment, if any. RESULTS: Access to drinking water as well as total and per capita household expenditures on drinking water show an association with household income, economic conditions of the household, and location. The access of the rural population to drinking water services is much more restricted than that of the urban population for groups having similar income. The proportion of families having a household water supply system is comparable in the higher-income rural population and the lower-income urban population. Families without a household water supply system spend a considerable amount of time getting water. For poorer families, this implies additional costs. Low-income families that lack a household water supply spend as much money on water as do families with better income. Access to household water disinfection methods is very limited among poor families due to its relatively high cost, which results in poorer drinking water quality in the lower-income population. CONCLUSIONS: Multi-purpose household surveys conducted from the consumer's point of view are important tools for research on equity and health, especially when studying unequal access to, use of, and expenditures on drinking water. It is recommended that countries improve their portion of the surveys that deals with water and sanitation in order to facilitate national health assessments and the establishment of more equitable subsidy programs.

Inequalities in health in Latin America and the Caribbean: descriptive and exploratory results for self-reported health problems and health care in twelve countries.

OBJECTIVE: To explore and describe inequalities in health and use of health care as revealed by self-report in 12 countries of Latin America and the Caribbean. METHODS: A descriptive and exploratory study was performed based on the responses to questions on health and health care utilization that were included in general purpose household surveys. Inequalities are described by quintile of household expenditures (or income) per capita, sex, age group (children, adults, and older adults), and place of residence (urban vs. rural area). For those who sought health care, median polishing was performed by economic status and sex, for the three age groups. RESULTS: Although the study is exploratory and descriptive, its findings show large economic gradients in health care utilization in these countries, with generally small differences between males and females and higher percentages of women seeking health care than men, although there were some exceptions among the lower economic strata in urban areas. CONCLUSIONS: Inequalities in self-reported health problems among the different economic strata were small, and such problems were usually more common among women than men. The presence of small inequalities may be due to cultural and social differences in the perception of health. However, in most countries included in the study, large inequalities were found in the use of health care for the self-reported health problems. It is important to develop regional projects aimed at improving the questions on self reported health in household interview surveys so that the determinants of the inequalities in health can be studied in depth. The authors conclude that due to the different patterns of economic gradients among different age groups and among males and females, the practice of standardization used in constructing concentration curves and in computing concentration indices should be avoided. At the end is a set of recommendations on how to improve these sources of data. Despite their shortcomings, household interview surveys are very useful in understanding the dimensions of health inequalities in these countries.

Inequalities in health in Latin America and the Caribbean: descriptive and exploratory results for self-reported health problems and health care in twelve countries / Desigualdades de salud en América Latina y el Caribe: resultados descriptivos y exploratorios basados en la autonotificación de problemas de salud y atención de salud en doce países

Objective. To explore and describe inequalities in health and use of health care as revealed by self-report in 12 countries of Latin America and the Caribbean. Methods. A descriptive and exploratory study was performed based on the responses to questions on health and health care utilization that were included in general purpose household surveys. Inequalities are described by quintile of household expenditures (or income) per capita, sex, age group (children, adults, and older adults), and place of residence (urban vs. rural area). For those who sought health care, median polishing was performed by economic status and sex, for the three age groups. Results. Although the study is exploratory and descriptive, its findings show large economic gradients in health care utilization in these countries, with generally small differences between males and females and higher percentages of women seeking health care than men, although there were some exceptions among the lower economic strata in urban areas. Conclusions. Inequalities in self-reported health problems among the different economic strata were small, and such problems were usually more common among women than men. The presence of small inequalities may be due to cultural and social differences in the perception of health. However, in most countries included in the study, large inequalities were found in the use of health care for the self-reported health problems. It is important to develop regional projects aimed at improving the questions on selfreported health in household interview surveys so that the determinants of the inequalities in health can be studied in depth. The authors conclude that due to the different patterns of economic gradients among different age groups and among males and females, the practice of standardization used in constructing concentration curves and in computing concentration indices should be avoided. At the end is a set of recommendations on how to improve these sources of data. Despite their shortcomings, household interview surveys are very useful in understanding the dimensions of health inequalities in these countries

Objetivo. Explorar y describir las desigualdades detectadas a partir de la autonotificación de problemas de salud y de la búsqueda de atención sanitaria en 12 países de América Latina y el Caribe. Métodos. Se analizan las preguntas sobre los problemas de salud y la búsqueda de atención en encuestas de hogares de tipo general y se describen las desigualdades correspondientes de acuerdo con quintiles de gasto (o ingreso) doméstico per cápita, sexo, grupo de edad (niños, adultos y adultos mayores) y área urbana o rural. En el caso de las personas que buscaron atención de salud, se aplica la técnica de pulimiento de medianas por nivel económico y sexo para los tres grupos de edad. Resultados. Aun cuando el trabajo es exploratorio y descriptivo, los resultados muestran en los países estudiados la existencia de importantes gradientes en la utilización de servicios de salud según nivel económico, y la presencia de diferencias generalmente pequeñas entre hombres y mujeres, con algunas excepciones en los estratos económicos más bajos en áreas urbanas. Conclusiones. Las desigualdades detectadas a partir de la autonotificación de problemas de salud son muy pequeñas entre personas de diferente nivel económico y los problemas suelen ser más frecuentes entre las mujeres que entre los hombres. Esto se debe posiblemente a diferencias culturales y sociales en la percepción de la salud. Las desigualdades en la búsqueda de atención son grandes en la mayoría de los países estudiados. Es muy importante que se desarrollen proyectos regionales encaminados a mejorar las preguntas para la autonotificación de problemas de salud con el fin de poder estudiar a fondo los factores que determinan las desigualdades en el ámbito sanitario. Los autores concluyen que debido a que los gradientes económicos muestran patrones diferentes en los distintos grupos de edad y en hombres y mujeres, los datos no deben estandarizarse a la hora de derivar curvas de concentración y calcular los índices de concentración. Al final hay una lista de recomendaciones sobre cómo mejorar estas fuentes de datos. Pese a sus deficiencias, las encuestas de hogares nos ayudan a entender las complejidades de las desigualdades de salud en estos países.

Using household surveys and other information sources to study health equity in Latin America and the Caribbean / El uso de las encuestas de hogares y de otras fuentes de información para estudiar la equidad en salud en América Latina y el Caribe

Las encuestas de hogares son en la actualidad la fuente más importante de datos para estudiar las desigualdades sanitarias. Esto se debe principalmente a que estas encuestas usan muestras representativas de la población de los países y cubren sus zonas urbanas y rurales, sus diferentes regiones geográficas y todos los estratos sociales y económicos de la población. Esto contrasta con los datos individuales de los registros administrativos tradicionales, reunidos y registrados en el sistema del servicio de salud o del registro civil y que generalmente tienen escasa utilidad para el estudio de las desigualdades. Estos datos de los registros tradicionales no cubren a la totalidad de la población y raramente contienen información sobre las condiciones económicas y sociales de las personas registradas. El Programa de Políticas Públicas y Salud de la Organización Panamericana de la Salud (OPS) ha creado una base de datos de las encuestas de hogares existentes en América Latina y el Caribe y ha usado estas encuestas para producir numerosos documentos sobre las desigualdades sanitarias y sus factores determinantes. Este artículo proporciona información básica sobre las encuestas de hogares y reseña la documentación sobre desigualdades producida por la OPS y otras instituciones

Inequities in access to and use of drinking water services in Latin America and the Caribbean / Inequidad en el acceso a y uso de servicios de agua potable en América Latina y el Caribe

Objetivo. Identificar y evaluar las inequidades en el acceso a y uso de servicios de agua potable tal como se reflejan en los gastos domiciliarios per capita en agua, y determinar qué proporción de los gastos del hogar se destina a pagar el agua en 11 países de América Latina y el Caribe. Métodos. A patrir de datos obtenidos mediante encuestas domiciliarias de tipo general (tales como la Living Standards Measurement Survey) realizadas en 11 países entre 1995 y 1999, la disponibilidad de agua potable y los gastos domiciliarios per capital y totales destinados a obetener agua potable fueron examinados a la luz de parámetros socioeconómicos, tales como la residencia urbana o rural, los ingresos del hogar, el tipo y la regularidad del servicio de distribución de agua, el tiempo dedicado a conseguir el agua en hogares sin alcantarillado y el tipo de sistema de purificación del agua, cuando lo hay. Resultados. El acceso a agua potable, así como los gastos domiciliarios totales y per capital para la obtención de agua, muestran una asociación con los ingresos del hogar, la situación económica del hogar y su ubicación. El acceso de la población rural a servicios de agua potable es mucho más reducido que el de la población urbana en aquellos grupos que devengan ingresos similares. La proporción de las familias que tienen una sistema distribuidor de agua potable en la vivienda es similar en la población rural de más altos ingresos que en la población urbana de ingresos más bajos. Las familias que no tienen un sistema de distribución de agua potable dedican mucho tiempo a conseguir el agua, lo cual implica, para las familias pobres, un gasto adicional. Las familias de bajos ingresos que carecen de una fuente de agua potable en el hogar gastan tanto dinero en conseguir agua como las familias de ingresos más altos. El acceso a métodos de desinfección del agua en el domicilio es muy reducido en el caso de las familias pobres, puesto que estos métodos son relativamente caros. El resultado es que las familias de menores ingresos beben agua de inferior calidad. Conclusiones. Las encuestas domiciliarias para fines generales que se han llevado a cabo desde el punto de vista del consumidor son instrumentos de valor para estudiar la equidad y la salud, particularmente cuando se estudian las desigualdades del acceso a y uso de servicios de agua potable y lo que se gasta en obtenerla. Se recomienda que los países mejoren la parte de la encuesta dedicada al agua y al saneamiento a fin de facilitar la realización de evaluaciones sanitarias a escala nacional y el establecimiento de programas de subsidios más equitativos

Objective. To identify and evaluate inequities in access to drinking water services as reflected in household per capita expenditure on water, and to determine what proportion of household expenditures is spent on water in 11 countries of Latin America and the Caribbean. Methods. Using data from multi-purpose household surveys (such as the Living Standards Measurement Survey Study) conducted in 11 countries from 1995 to 1999, the availability of drinking water as well as total and per capita household expenditures on drinking water were analyzed in light of socioeconomic parameters, such as urban vs. rural setting, household income, type and regularity of water supply service, time spent obtaining water in homes not served by running water, and type of water-purifying treatment, if any. Results. Access to drinking water as well as total and per capita household expenditures on drinking water show an association with household income, economic conditions of the household, and location. The access of the rural population to drinking water services is much more restricted than that of the urban population for groups having similar income. The proportion of families having a household water supply system is comparable in the higher-income rural population and the lower-income urban population. Families without a household water supply system spend a considerable amount of time getting water. For poorer families, this implies additional costs. Low-income families that lack a household water supply spend as much money on water as do families with better income. Access to household water disinfection methods is very limited among poor families due to its relatively high cost, which results in poorer drinking water quality in the lower-income population. Conclusions. Multi-purpose household surveys conducted from the consumer's point of view are important tools for research on equity and health, especially when studying unequal access to, use of, and expenditures on drinking water. It is recommended that countries improve their portion of the surveys that deals with water and sanitation in order to facilitate national health assessments and the establishment of more equitable subsidy programs

Determinantes das desigualdades na auto-avaliação do estado de saúde no Brasil: análise dos dados da PNAD/1998 / Factors determining inequalities in the health condition self-assessment in Brazil: analysis of data of PNAD/1998

O trabalho apresenta um panorama geral das desigualdades nos determinantes considerados na explicação das desigualdades na auto-avaliação do estado de saúde a partir dos dados da PNAD/1998. Mostra-se como existem gradientes na classificação do estado de saúde autopercebido de acordo com os níveis de educação, de renda per capita, de acordo com a raça ou cor de pele das pessoas, por grandes regiões do país e especialmente com o aumento da idade. Usando modelos de regressão logística, tenta-se explicar quais as determinações importantes dessa autoclassificação. Os resultados mais importantes indicam que educação e rendimento têm efeitos que se somam e que há diferenças entre homens e mulheres e de acordo com populações urbanas e rurais. As desigualdades na classificação do estado de saúde de acordo com a raça ou cor de pele das pessoas deixam de ser estatisticamente significativas depois de se controlar por nível de educação e de renda. Discute-se a utilidade desse tipo de informação sobre classificação autopercebida de saúde e a importância de melhorar, em futuros inquéritos, a qualidade dos dados por meio de sugestões sobre alterações nos procedimentos de entrevista.

Apreciaçäo crítica do uso da estatística na epidemiologia; oficina de trabalho / Critical analysis of the statistical use in epidemiology; workshop

Analisa o estado atual das interrelaçöes da estatística e epidemiologia, no contexto brasileiro oferecendo sugestöes que contribuem para o aprimoramento dessas relaçöes (AMSB)