European consensus on patient contact shielding.

Patient contact shielding has been in use for many years in radiology departments in order to reduce the effects and risks of ionising radiation on certain organs. New technologies in projection imaging and CT scanning such as digital receptors and automatic exposure control (AEC) systems have reduced doses and improved image consistency. These changes and a greater understanding of both the benefits and the risks from the use of shielding have led to a review of shielding use in radiology. A number of professional bodies have already issued guidance in this regard. This paper represents the current consensus view of the main bodies involved in radiation safety and imaging in Europe: European Federation of Organisations for Medical Physics, European Federation of Radiographer Societies, European Society of Radiology, European Society of Paediatric Radiology, EuroSafe Imaging, European Radiation Dosimetry Group (EURADOS), and European Academy of DentoMaxilloFacial Radiology (EADMFR). It is based on the expert recommendations of the Gonad and Patient Shielding (GAPS) Group formed with the purpose of developing consensus in this area. The recommendations are intended to be clear and easy to use. They are intended as guidance, and they are developed using a multidisciplinary team approach. It is recognised that regulations, custom and practice vary widely on the use of patient shielding in Europe and it is hoped that these recommendations will inform a change management program that will benefit patients and staff.

Referral guidelines for medical imaging in children: an ESR-EuroSafe Imaging survey on availability, awareness and use in clinical practice among European radiologists.

OBJECTIVES: Justification of medical exposures from medical imaging is fundamental to radiation protection. Referral guidelines are intended to help physicians decide when an imaging study is justified. For two decades, referral guidelines have been a legally binding requirement for European Union member states. Recently, the European Society of Radiology (ESR) developed iGuide tool, which provides evidence-based referral guidance for imaging inclusive of children. The aim of this survey was to assess the availability, use and familiarity of referral guidelines for medical imaging in children and knowledge about the availability of ESR iGuide among ESR member radiologists. METHODS: Over a 2-month period (15 September-15 November 2019), 33,257 ESR member radiologists were invited to respond to an anonymised web-based questionnaire, which consisted of 12 multiple-choice questions. RESULTS: In total, 2067/33,257 responses (6.3%) were received from 52 countries. A total of 1068 out of 2067 (51.7%) respondents were aware that imaging referral guidelines are a legal requirement. One thousand five (48.6%) of all respondents did not know whether dedicated guidelines for imaging in children were available, and only 653 (31.2%) were aware of the mainstays of the available guidelines. Similarly, just 746 (36.1%) of all respondents were aware of ESR iGuide availability and features. CONCLUSIONS: The information gathered confirms that effective and widespread adoption of imaging referral guidelines is lacking, especially in children. Further work is required to improve uptake and awareness. KEY POINTS: • Justification of medical exposures is fundamental to radiation protection and evidence-based referral guidelines are crucial for practical implementation of this principle. • About half of survey respondents are aware that the availability of imaging referral guidelines is a legal requirement, despite this being mandated since 1997. • The information gathered from this survey confirms that, especially in children, an effective and widespread adoption of imaging referral guidelines is lacking.

Lifetime radiation-induced sarcoma risk in patients subjected to IMRT or VMAT for uterine cervix carcinoma.

This study was conducted to estimate the lifetime radiation-induced bone and soft tissue sarcoma risks from intensity modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) and volumetric modulated arc therapy (VMAT) for uterine cervix carcinoma. 13 cervical cancer patients were included. The bone and soft tissue structures were defined on patients' treatment planning computed tomography (CT) scans. Both CT-based IMRT and VMAT plans with 6 MV photons delivering 45 Gy to the target site were designed for each patient. The organ equivalent dose (OED) and the lifetime attributable risk (LAR) for developing bone or soft tissue sarcoma were estimated using treatment planning data and a non-linear mechanistic model. The estimation method did not consider the survival rates following radiotherapy and the use of brachytherapy treatments. The patient-specific OEDs of the bone structure from IMRT and VMAT were 2.33-2.83 and 2.34-2.82 Gy, respectively. The corresponding values for the soft tissue structure were 1.27-1.70 and 1.32-1.73 Gy. An insignificant difference was found between the patient-specific OEDs and the directly proportional sarcoma risks (bone: P = 0.07; soft tissue: P = 0.38). The LAR for the development of a bone sarcoma varied from 0.05 to 0.16% by the patient's age during irradiation and the applied treatment delivery technique. The corresponding LAR range for radiation-induced soft-tissue sarcoma was 0.08-0.27%. The above LARs resulted in a relative risk of more than 1.20 indicating that IMRT or VMAT may lead to a considerable risk increase of developing bone or soft tissue sarcoma exceeding 20% in respect to the current incidence of these malignancies in unexposed population.

The growing potential of diagnostic reference levels as a dynamic tool for dose optimization.

Diagnostic Reference Levels (DRLs) is an important tool that can improve radiation safety in medical imaging. However, there are certain aspects that need improvement and several obstacles that should be overcome before DRLs are fully implemented in practice. It is the authors belief that DRLs should be a dynamic tool that follows the development of clinical practice and technology advances. The establishment of adult and paediatric DRLs based on clinical indications should be considered as a priority. A common methodology and terminology is needed to allow for their clinical use. Dose monitoring systems can improve and accelerate the establishment, update and use of DRLs. However, certain steps need to be taken for proper collection. organization and analysis of big data. Availability of clinically qualified medical physicists in medical imaging departments, awareness on the importance of dose optimization and proper cooperation of relevant stakeholders are important prerequisites for the successful establishment and use of DRLs.

Patient shielding: The need for a European consensus statement.

Contact shielding has been in widespread use for the last 60-70 years aiming to protect against genetic effects, cancer, and other detriment. Since 2012, studies have begun to appear in the literature that question the continued use of such shielding, especially when radiographic technology has changed so much over the intervening period This literature has culminated in several professional bodies such as the American Association of Physicists in Medicine (AAPM) and the British Institute of Radiology (BIR) issuing guidance and statements recommending against the continued routine use of patient contact shielding. Many professional societies have also endorsed these statements. National statements on the matter continue to be produced. It is notable however that the major European bodies involved in diagnostic radiology and radiation safety have not to date issued a statement on patient shielding. This commentary looks at reasons for that and argues that it is now time for a European consensus statement on patient shielding. It is the authors belief that there are advantages to building on the work done by the AAPM and BIR, using the opportunity to amplify the statements, propagate the intent of the original statements, refine the message to deal with questions that have arisen since their publication. Α working group, Gonad and Patient Shielding (GAPS) has been formed by members from a) the European Federation of Organisations for Medical Physics (EFOMP), b) the Eurosafe Imaging initiative of the European Society of Radiology (ESR), c) the European Federation of Radiographers Societies (EFRS), d) EURADOS and e) the BIR to produce a joint statement on the proper application of patient shielding in diagnostic and interventional radiology.

Ethical aspects in the use of radiation in medicine: update from ICRP Task Group 109.

Whereas scientific evidence is the basis for recommendations and guidance on radiological protection, professional ethics is critically important and should always guide professional behaviour. The International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) established Task Group 109 to advise medical professionals, patients, families, carers, the public, and authorities about the ethical aspects of radiological protection of patients in the diagnostic and therapeutic use of radiation in medicine. Occupational exposures and research-related exposures are not within the scope of this task group. Task Group 109 will produce a report that will be available to the different interested parties for consultation before publication. Presently, the report is at the stage of a working document that has benefitted from an international workshop organised on the topic by the World Health Organization. It presents the history of ethics in medicine in ICRP, and explains why this subject is important, and the benefits it can bring to the standard biomedical ethics. As risk is an essential part in decision-making and communication, a summary is included on what is known about the dose-effect relationship, with emphasis on the associated uncertainties. Once this theoretical framework has been presented, the report becomes resolutely more practical. First, it proposes an evaluation method to analyse specific situations from an ethical point of view. This method allows stakeholders to review a set of six ethical values and provides hints on how they could be balanced. Next, various situations (e.g. pregnancy, elderly, paediatric, end of life) are considered in two steps: first within a realistic, ethically challenging scenario on which the evaluation method is applied; and second within a more general context. Scenarios are presented and discussed with attention to specific patient circumstances, and on how and which reflections on ethical values can be of help in the decision-making process. Finally, two important related aspects are considered: how should we communicate with patients, family, and other stakeholders; and how should we incorporate ethics into the education and training of medical professionals?

Risk of contralateral breast and ipsilateral lung cancer induction from forward-planned IMRT for breast carcinoma.

PURPOSE: To assess the risk of contralateral breast and ipsilateral lung cancer induction from forward-planned IMRT for breast carcinoma. METHODS: The study group included 13 females irradiated for breast cancer with 6 MV photons. The plans were initially generated by using standard fractionated (SF) forward-planned IMRT (50 Gy at 2 Gy/fraction). Hypofractionated (HF) IMRT (42.56 Gy at 2.66 Gy/fraction) was also employed for plan creation. Differential DVHs derived from the treatment plans were used to estimate the patient-specific organ equivalent dose (OED) to the contralateral breast and ipsilateral lung and the relevant lifetime attributable risks of cancer development. These estimates were made with a non-linear mechanistic model. The radiotherapy-induced cancer risks were combined with the lifetime intrinsic risk (LIR) values for unexposed people to determine the patient- and organ-specific relative risk (RR) for second cancer induction. RESULTS: The OED of the contralateral breast from SF and HF forward-planned IMRT was up to 0.99 and 0.86 Gy, respectively. The corresponding values for the ipislateral lung were 4.15 and 3.66 Gy. The patient-specific RR range for the contralateral breast and ipislateral lung cancer induction following SF forward-planned IMRT was 1.04-1.10 and 1.60-1.81, respectively. The corresponding RRs from hypofractionated treatment were 1.03-1.09 and 1.53-1.73. CONCLUSIONS: The treatment of primary breast carcinoma with the use of SF or HF forward-planned IMRT results in increased probabilities for developing secondary malignancies in the healthy contralateral breast or ipsilateral lung compared to the respective LIRs for an unexposed population.

Radiotherapy for non-malignant shoulder syndrome: Is there a risk for radiation-induced carcinogenesis?

PURPOSE: To estimate the organ-specific probability for carcinogenesis following radiotherapy for non-malignant shoulder syndrome. METHODS: Photon-beam radiation therapy to 6 Gy for shoulder syndrome was simulated with a Monte Carlo code. An androgynous computational phantom representing a typical adult was used to calculate the radiation dose to out-of-field organs having a predilection for carcinogenesis. The organ-specific lifetime attributable risk (LAR) for out-of-field cancer induction was estimated by the organ dose calculations and the proper risk factors introduced by the BEIR-VII report. The average dose (Dav) and organ equivalent dose (OED) of lung, which was partially included within the treatment volume, was found from 3d-conformal radiotherapy plans. The Dav and OED were used to estimate the lung cancer risk with a linear and mechanistic models, respectively. All risk assessments were made for 50- and 60-year-old male and female patients. RESULTS: Monte Carlo simulations resulted in an out-of-field organ dose range of 0.7-48.4 mGy. The LARs for out-of-field cancer induction were (1.4 × 10-4)% to (2.8 × 10-2)%. These probabilities were at least 403 times lower than the respective lifetime intrinsic risk (LIR) values. The Dav and OED of lung was up to 164.9 and 142.3 mGy, respectively. The LAR for developing lung malignancies varied from 0.11 to 0.18% by the model used and the patient's age and gender. The lung cancer risks were 36-64 times smaller than the LIRs. CONCLUSIONS: The estimated probabilities for developing malignancies due to radiotherapy for non-malignant shoulder syndrome are minor relative to the natural cancer occurrence rates.

Unintended and accidental medical radiation exposures in radiology: guidelines on investigation and prevention.

This paper sets out guidelines for managing radiation exposure incidents involving patients in diagnostic and interventional radiology. The work is based on collation of experiences from representatives of international and national organizations for radiologists, medical physicists, radiographers, regulators, and equipment manufacturers, derived from an International Atomic Energy Agency Technical Meeting. More serious overexposures can result in skin doses high enough to produce tissue reactions, in interventional procedures and computed tomography, most notably from perfusion studies. A major factor involved has been deficiencies in training of staff in operation of equipment and optimization techniques. The use of checklists and time outs before procedures commence, and dose alerts when critical levels are reached during procedures, can provide safeguards to reduce the risks of these effects occurring. However, unintended and accidental overexposures resulting in relatively small additional doses can take place in any diagnostic or interventional x-ray procedure and it is important to learn from errors that occur, as these may lead to increased risks of stochastic effects. Such events may involve the wrong examinations, procedural errors, or equipment faults. Guidance is given on prevention, investigation, and dose calculation for radiology exposure incidents within healthcare facilities. Responsibilities should be clearly set out in formal policies, and procedures should be in place to ensure that root causes are identified and deficiencies addressed. When an overexposure of a patient or an unintended exposure of a foetus occurs, the foetal, organ, skin, and/or effective dose may be estimated from exposure data. When doses are very low, generic values for the examination may be sufficient, but a full assessment of doses to all exposed organs and tissues may sometimes be required. The use of general terminology to describe risks from stochastic effects is recommended rather than the calculation of numerical values, as these are misleading when applied to individuals.

Cancer risk after radiotherapy for benign diseases.

Radiotherapy with low to intermediate doses has been historically employed for the management of several benign diseases. The exposure to ionizing radiation may increase the probability for carcinogenesis. The knowledge of this probability is of value for weighting the benefits and risks of radiotherapy against different therapeutic approaches. This study initially reviews the epidemiologic data associated with the cancer induction due to radiotherapy for non-malignant conditions in previous decades. Most of these data were derived from patients irradiated with conventional techniques, which are no longer applied, for some benign diseases not treated with radiotherapy nowadays. The follow-up of a series of patients undergoing modern radiotherapy for benign disorders may be used for estimating the radiation-induced cancer risk. The realization of this process is often difficult due to the relatively small number of patients undergoing radiation therapy for such diseases in many countries and due to long latent period for the appearance of a malignancy after exposure. The combination of dosimetric data, which can be obtained by phantom measurements or treatment planning systems or Monte Carlo calculations, with the appropriate linear and non-linear risk models may lead to theoretical estimates of the radiotherapy-induced cancer risks. The limitations of the method providing a whole-body cancer risk based on the effective dose concept are presented. The theoretical organ-specific risks for carcinogenesis give useful information about the development of malignancies at any in-field, partially in-field and out-of-field critical site. The uncertainties of the organ-dependent cancer risk estimates are discussed.

Data and methods to estimate fetal dose from fluoroscopically guided prophylactic hypogastric artery balloon occlusion.

PURPOSE: To provide data for estimation of fetal radiation dose (DF) from prophylactic hypogastric artery balloon occlusion (HABO) procedures. METHODS: The Monte-Carlo-N-particle (MCNP) transport code and mathematical phantoms representing a pregnant patient at the ninth month of gestation were employed. PA, RAO 20° and LAO 20° fluoroscopy projections of left and right internal iliac arteries were simulated. Projection-specific normalized fetal dose (NFD) data were produced for various beam qualities. The effects of projection angle, x-ray field location relative to the fetus, field size, maternal body size, and fetal size on NFD were investigated. Presented NFD values were compared to corresponding values derived using a physical anthropomorphic phantom simulating pregnancy at the third trimester and thermoluminescence dosimeters. RESULTS: NFD did not considerably vary when projection angle was altered by ±5°, whereas it was found to markedly depend on tube voltage, filtration, x-ray field location and size, and maternal body size. Differences in NFD < 7.5% were observed for naturally expected variations in fetal size. A difference of less than 13.5% was observed between NFD values estimated by MCNP and direct measurements. CONCLUSIONS: Data and methods provided allow for reliable estimation of radiation burden to the fetus from HABO.

Abdominal fat volume estimation by stereology on CT: a comparison with manual planimetry.

OBJECTIVES: To deploy and evaluate a stereological point-counting technique on abdominal CT for the estimation of visceral (VAF) and subcutaneous abdominal fat (SAF) volumes. METHODS: Stereological volume estimations based on point counting and systematic sampling were performed on images from 14 consecutive patients who had undergone abdominal CT. For the optimization of the method, five sampling intensities in combination with 100 and 200 points were tested. The optimum stereological measurements were compared with VAF and SAF volumes derived by the standard technique of manual planimetry on the same scans. RESULTS: Optimization analysis showed that the selection of 200 points along with the sampling intensity 1/8 provided efficient volume estimations in less than 4 min for VAF and SAF together. The optimized stereology showed strong correlation with planimetry (VAF: r = 0.98; SAF: r = 0.98). No statistical differences were found between the two methods (VAF: P = 0.81; SAF: P = 0.83). The 95% limits of agreement were also acceptable (VAF: -16.5%, 16.1%; SAF: -10.8%, 10.7%) and the repeatability of stereology was good (VAF: CV = 4.5%, SAF: CV = 3.2%). CONCLUSIONS: Stereology may be successfully applied to CT images for the efficient estimation of abdominal fat volume and may constitute a good alternative to the conventional planimetric technique. KEY POINTS: Abdominal obesity is associated with increased risk of disease and mortality. Stereology may quantify visceral and subcutaneous abdominal fat accurately and consistently. The application of stereology to estimating abdominal volume fat reduces processing time. Stereology is an efficient alternative method for estimating abdominal fat volume.

Abdominal CT during pregnancy: a phantom study on the effect of patient centring on conceptus radiation dose and image quality.

OBJECTIVES: To investigate the effect of patient centring on conceptus radiation dose and image quality in abdominal CT during pregnancy. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Three anthropomorphic phantoms that represent a pregnant woman at the three trimesters of gestation were subjected to a routine abdominal CT. Examinations were performed with fixed mAs (mAsf) and with the automatic exposure control system (AEC) activated. The percent reduction between mAsf and modulated mAs (mAsmod) was calculated. Conceptus dose (Dc) was measured using thermoluminencent dosimeters. To study the effect of misplacement of pregnant women on Dc, each phantom was positioned at various locations relative to gantry isocentre. Image quality was evaluated on the basis of image noise, signal-to-noise ratio, and contrast-to-noise ratio. RESULTS: The maximum reduction between mAsf and mAsmod was 59.8 %, while the corresponding DC reduction was 59.3 %. DC was found to decrease by up to 25 % and 7.9 % for phantom locations below and above the isocentre, respectively. Image quality deteriorated when AEC was activated, and it was progressively improved from lower to higher than the isocentre locations. CONCLUSION: Centring errors do not result in an increase in Dc. To maintain image quality, accurate centring is required. KEY POINTS: • AEC activation reduces conceptus radiation dose at all gestational stages. • Patients should be accurately aligned at the gantry isocenter. • Patient centring deserves increased attention in clinical practice. • Pregnant patient centring errors do not considerably affect conceptus dose.

Pediatric radiation dose and risk from bone density measurements using a GE Lunar Prodigy scanner.

UNLABELLED: Effective radiation doses associated with bone mineral density examinations performed on children using a GE Lunar Prodigy fan-beam dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) scanner were found to be comparable to doses from pencil-beam DXA devices, i.e., lower than 1 µSv. Cancer risks associated with acquisitions obtained in this study are negligible. INTRODUCTION: No data were found in the literature on radiation doses and potential risks following pediatric DXA performed on GE Lunar DXA scanners. This study aimed to estimate effective doses and associated cancer risks involved in pediatric examinations performed on a GE Lunar Prodigy scanner. METHODS: Four physical anthropomorphic phantoms representing newborn, 1-, 5-, and 10-year-old patients were employed to simulate DXA exposures. All acquisitions were carried out using the Prodigy scanner. Dose measurements were performed for spine and dual femur using the phantoms simulating the 5- and 10-year-old child. Moreover, doses associated with whole-body examinations were measured for the four phantoms used in the current study. RESULTS: The gender-average effective dose for spine and hip examinations were 0.65 and 0.36 µSv, respectively, for the phantom representing the 5-year-old child and 0.93 and 0.205 µSv, respectively, for the phantom representing the 10-year-old child. Effective doses for whole-body examinations were 0.25, 0.22, 0.19, and 0.15 µSv for the neonate, 1-, 5-, and 10-year old child, respectively. The estimated lifetime cancer risks were negligible, i.e., 0.02-0.25 per million, depending on the sex, age, and type of DXA examination. A formula is presented for the estimation of effective dose from examinations performed on GE Lunar Prodigy scanners installed in other institutions. CONCLUSIONS: The effective doses and potential cancer risks associated with pediatric DXA examinations performed on a GE Lunar Prodigy fan-beam scanner were found to be comparable to doses and risks reported from pencil-beam DXA devices.

Hybrid cardiac imaging: insights in the dilemma of the appropriate clinical management of patients with suspected coronary artery disease.

AIM: To evaluate the potential of SPECT myocardial perfusion imaging (MPI)-computed tomography coronary angiography (CTCA) hybrid fusion imaging to improve the diagnostic performance of cardiac SPECT/MPI and CTCA alone in order to act as more accurate gate keeper to further investigation invasive or not. METHODS AND RESULTS: Twenty-five patients were subjected to SPECT/MPI and CTCA within a period of 1 month without any medical treatment modification. A fusion software package was used for cardiac SPECT-CTCA image fusion. Semiquantitative analysis was performed for cardiac SPECT, CTCA and SPECT/MPI-CTCA fusion images. Patients were classified in 2 groups according to the clinical decision for further investigation (group A), or not (group B). Statistically significant differences were observed when SPECT/MPI-CTCA fusion images were used instead of cardiac SPECT alone (p<0.05). No statistically significant differences were observed comparing CTCA alone to SPECT/MPI-CTCA fusion images (p=0.25). A mid-term follow-up (mean 3.58 ± 0.24 years) showed that all patients classified in group A based on the interpretation of SPECT MPI-CTCA fused images underwent conventional coronary angiography with further necessity for PTCA or CABG whereas absence of major or minor cardiac events was revealed for all patients of group B. CONCLUSION: In patients suspected for coronary artery disease, cardiac SPECT/MPI-CTCA fusion imaging was found to considerably alter the clinical decision for referral to further investigation derived from SPECT/MPI.

Quality assurance of imaging techniques used in the clinical management of osteoporosis.

Recent advances in the densitometric and imaging techniques involved in the management of osteoporosis are associated with increasing accuracy and precision as well as with higher exposure to ionising radiation. Therefore, special attention to quality assurance (QA) procedures is needed in this field. The development of effective and efficient QA programmes is mandatory to guarantee optimal image quality while reducing radiation exposure levels to the ALARA principle (as low as reasonably achievable). In this review article, the basic QA procedures are discussed for the techniques applied to everyday clinical practice.

Radiation protection in digestive endoscopy: European Society of Digestive Endoscopy (ESGE) guideline.

This article expresses the current view of the European Society of Gastrointestinal Endoscopy (ESGE) about radiation protection for endoscopic procedures, in particular endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP). Particular cases, including pregnant women and pediatric patients, are also discussed. This Guideline was developed by a group of endoscopists and medical physicists to ensure that all aspects of radiation protection are adequately dealt with. A two-page executive summary of evidence statements and recommendations is provided. The target readership for this Guideline mostly includes endoscopists, anesthesiologists, and endoscopy assistants who may be exposed to X-rays during endoscopic procedures.

Technical note: a fast laser-based optical-CT scanner for three-dimensional radiation dosimetry.

PURPOSE: To introduce a novel laser-based optical-CT scanner for the readout of three-dimensional (3D) radiation dosimeters. METHODS: The scanner employs a diode laser, a cylindrical lens, a motorized linear rail, a rotation stage, and a charge-coupled device camera. The scanner operates in a translate-rotate fashion and may be set up in two configurations depending on the orientation of the cylindrical lens. The attenuation coefficient versus dose response was determined for a normoxic N-vinylpyrrolidone based polymer gel dosimeter. Cylindrical dosimeters, 2 cm diameter, were homogenously irradiated to known doses up to 60 Gy using a 6 MV linear accelerator. For a test irradiation, a 5 cm diameter dosimeter was irradiated along its cylindrical axis using a rectangular 1 cm x 1 cm irradiation beam. The dose readout of this scanner was compared to the corresponding readout of a common wide illumination and area detector optical-CT scanner. RESULTS: The attenuation coefficient versus dose response of the laser-based system was found to be linear up to 60 Gy (r2 = 0.997) compared to the wide field illumination based optical-CT scanner, which exhibits linearity up to 32 Gy (r2 = 0.996). The noise in the reconstructed attenuation coefficient maps was +/- 7.2 x 10(-2) mm(-1) versus +/- 9.5 x 10(-3) mm(-1) for the laser-based system and the wide field illumination system, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: We have developed a novel laser-based optical-CT scanner, which is capable of generating fast 3D dosimetric data using a scattering polymer gel dosimeter. Our data demonstrate that the dose readout of this scanner preserves the advantage of existing laser-based optical-CT scanners in providing measurements, which are minimally affected by scattered light. For accurate reconstruction of the attenuation coefficients, noise reduction techniques need to be applied.

The impact of bone mineral density on the degree of curvature of the lumbar spine.

OBJECTIVE: The prevailing perception is that one of the causes of postural deformities is osteoporosis. Nonetheless, studies of the correlation between bone mineral density (BMD) and spinal curvatures have produced contradictory results. This study was undertaken in order to determine whether (BMD) is associated with the curvature of the lumbar spine. METHODS: 105 postmenopausal women, aged 45-76 years (average= 57.3 years), were examined. All the participants underwent DXA scanning and spinal radiography using the same equipment and techniques. Lumbar curvatures were measured using the Cobb method. Subjects were divided according to their T-score into osteoporosis patients (n=54) and controls (n=51). Statistical analysis was performed using one way ANOVA, Mann-Whitney as well as Pearson and Spearman rank correlations. RESULTS: There were no statistically significant correlations between BMD and lumbar curvature angles either in the total sample or in either group individually. Furthermore, these angles were not significantly different between patients with osteoporosis and controls. CONCLUSIONS: The reduction in BMD and the alteration of the lumbar curvature that are observed in elderly individuals are concurrent but not related phenomena. The findings of this study contradict the claim that reduced bone mineral density is the cause of postural deformities.