Attitudes towards the Potential Use of Aversive Geofencing Devices to Manage Wild Elephant Movement.

Aversive geofencing devices (AGDs) or animal-borne satellite-linked shock collars might become a useful tool to mitigate human-elephant conflict (HEC). AGDs have the potential to condition problem elephants to avoid human-dominated landscapes by associating mild electric shocks with preceding audio warnings given as they approach virtual boundaries. We assessed the opinions of different stakeholders (experts, farmers, and others who have and have not experienced HEC; n = 611) on the potential use of AGDs on Asian elephants. Most respondents expressed positive opinions on the potential effectiveness of AGDs in managing elephant movement (62.2%). About 62.8% respondents also provided positive responses for the acceptability of AGDs if pilot studies with captive elephants have been successful in managing their movements. Some respondents perceived AGDs to be unacceptable because they are unethical or harmful and would be unsuccessful given wild elephants may respond differently to AGDs than captive elephants. Respondents identified acceptability, support and awareness of stakeholders, safety and wellbeing of elephants, logistical difficulties, durability and reliable functionality of AGDs, and uncertainties in elephants' responses to AGDs as potential challenges for implementing AGDs. These issues need attention when developing AGDs to increase support from stakeholders and to effectively reduce HEC incidents in the future.

Current and Future Approaches to Mitigate Conflict between Humans and Asian Elephants: The Potential Use of Aversive Geofencing Devices.

Asian elephants are a principal cause of human-wildlife conflict. This results in the death/injury of elephants and humans and large-scale crop and property damage. Most current human-elephant conflict (HEC) mitigation tools lack the flexibility to accommodate the ecological needs of elephants and are ineffective at reducing HEC in the long-term. Here we review common HEC mitigation tools used in Asia and the potential of Aversive Geofencing Devices (AGDs) to manage problem elephants. AGDs can be configured to monitor animal movements in real-time and deliver auditory warnings followed by electric stimuli whenever animals attempt to move across user-specified virtual boundaries. Thus, AGDs are expected to condition elephants to avoid receiving shocks and keep them away from virtually fenced areas, while providing alternative routes that can be modified if required. Studies conducted using AGDs with other species provide an overview of their potential in conditioning wild animals. We recommend that the efficacy and welfare impact of AGDs be evaluated using captive elephants along with public perception of using AGDs on elephants as a means of addressing the inherent deficiencies of common HEC mitigation tools. If elephants could be successfully conditioned to avoid virtual fences, then AGDs could resolve many HEC incidents throughout Asia.

Clinico-epidemiology and management of hump-nosed pit viper (Hypnale spp.) bites in dogs.

Human envenoming from the bite of the abundant hump-nosed pit viper (Hypnale spp.) (HNPV) is a frequent occurrence with victims experiencing unpleasant and sometimes life-threatening consequences. Further, clinico-pathology, treatment and management measures in HNPV envenomed dogs are under recognized. Prospective investigations were performed to assess the clinico-pathology and management options for HNPV envenomed dogs brought to the University of Peradeniya's Veterinary Teaching Hospital from January, 2012 to March 2018. We recorded the local and systemic manifestations, hematological and urinary abnormalities of 78 dogs in which HNPV bite had been witnessed by the owner. Mild swelling, extensive swelling, hemorrhagic blistering and hemorrhagic bullae at the site of bite were observed in 59%, 31%, 6% and 4% of the dogs, respectively. Some dogs were subjected to surgical excision of necrotized tissue including limb amputation. We observed the following systemic clinical effects in envenomed dogs: neurotoxicity (13%), acute kidney injury (AKI) (14%) and coagulopathy (16%). All dogs showed leukocytosis with mean white blood cell count of 25.25 × 103/µL. Mild anemia and thrombocytopenia were detected in 29% of the dogs. There was a significant correlation between extent of local tissue injuries with length of hospitalization (LH). The mean time of coagulopathy observed was 21.3 h (IQR: 8-48 h). In coagulopathic dogs, there was a strong correlation between LH and extent of local tissue injury (rs = 0.7751, P < 0.0001); LH and whole blood clotting time(CT) (rs = 1.0, P < 0.0001); PT and aPTT (rs = 0.4712, P < 0.001). LH was significantly correlated with the development of AKI (p = 0.0013). Lack of specific antivenom (AVS) for HNPV envenoming provided an opportunity to study the remaining treatment options. Therefore, the study allowed the identification of local and systemic effects, hematological abnormalities, possible supportive treatments and drawbacks of management measures for envenomed dogs.

Development of a Treatment Protocol for Cobra (Naja naja) Bite Envenoming in Dogs.

There is limited information on clinical profiles, treatment, and management aspects of Indian cobra (Naja naja) bite envenoming in dogs in Sri Lanka. Dogs with cobra bites presented to the Veterinary Teaching Hospital (VTH), University of Peradeniya, were prospectively studied over a period of 72 months; local and systemic clinical manifestations and hematological abnormalities were recorded. We studied 116 cobra bite envenomings in dogs. A grading system was established using a combination of anatomical site of fang marks, as well as local and systemic clinical manifestations. Accordingly, treatment strategies were established using Indian polyvalent antivenom (AVS). Pain and swelling at the bite site were major clinical signs observed, while neurotoxic manifestations (mydriasis, wheezing, and crackles) were detected in most dogs. Leukocytosis was observed in 78% of them. Statistical analysis revealed that the grading scores obtained were compatible to initiate AVS administration according to the severity. The minimum number required was 2 AVS vials (range 2-12). Almost 20% of the dogs developed wheezing, crackles, hypersalivation, restlessness, and dyspnea as adverse reactions to AVS treatment. Necrotic wounds on bitten anatomical sites developed in 19% of the dogs and 2.5% developed acute kidney injuries as a consequence of envenoming crisis. Despite treatment, 3% of dogs died. No dry bites were recorded.

CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR WILDLIFE DISEASE SURVEILLANCE IN SRI LANKA.

The Sri Lanka Wildlife Health Centre was created in 2011 as an intersectoral surveillance system intended to address gaps in emerging and zoonotic disease preparedness in the country. This study, which was conducted during August 2015 to November 2015, examined perceived obstacles and opportunities to undertake wildlife disease surveillance in Sri Lanka. Responses to a pretested postal questionnaire by 315 field officers from the Department of Wildlife Conservation (DWC) and Department of Animal Production and Health (livestock development instructors [LDIs] and field veterinary surgeons [FVSs]) were used in the analysis. Responses came from all 25 administrative districts in the country. The reported obstacles (and proportion of respondents) included lack of transport facilities (80%), skilled staff (75%), infrastructure (65%), human resources (62%), training (67%), and a mandate for getting involved in wildlife disease surveillance (28%). These obstacles have resulted in rare or sporadic collection and submission of samples and their testing for surveillance purposes. A focus on rabies surveillance found that 84 (78%) DWC officers whose mandate was to deal with wild animals and 41 (40%) LDIs whose mandate was to deal with agricultural animals had inadequate knowledge to inform rabies surveillance activities and actions. Despite being outside of their mandate, 68% of FVSs and 72% of LDI s were willing to contribute to wild animal disease surveillance. Overcoming legal impediments to handling wildlife was cited as an essential step to establishing a multisectoral surveillance system involving government branches, universities, and citizens.

Bioavailability of selenium (Se) in cattle population in Sri Lanka based on qualitative determination of glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) activities.

Glutathione Peroxidase activity in whole blood is well correlated with the Selenium (Se) levels in cattle hence can be used effectively to assess the supply of Se to farm animals. In this study, Se status of cattle from five different geographic regions of Sri Lanka were assessed based on glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) activity. The GSH-Px activity was determined in whole blood samples collected from 80 cattle from 31 different farms in five districts viz. Kandy, Anuradhapura, Batticoloa, Trincomalee and Jaffna using photometric method. Mean GSH-Px activity was found to be 825, 1239, 1039, 849 and 1307 µkat L-1 in above districts, respectively while the reference value was considered as 665.4 µkat L-1. Among the studied animals, insufficient Se levels were detected in 50%, 17%, 9%, 27% and 5%, respectively, from above districts. Kruskal Wallis test indicated a significant variation among the sampled locations with respect to the GSH-Px activity (p = 0.001). Selenium content in pasture and water collected from studied locations varied from 6.0 to 554 µg kg-1 and < 0.03-1.14 µg L-1, respectively. The lower Se levels in feeds recorded from Kandy region infer the lower GSH-Px activity in the animals from the same region. This variability may be due to differences in nutrient supply, age and species of cattle, and lactation stage. Although the assessing method has some limitations, the activity of GSH-Px of the samples indirectly confirms that considerable numbers of cattle from Sri Lanka are with insufficient selenium levels.

Clinico-epidemiology and management of Russell's viper (Daboia russelii) envenoming in dogs in Sri Lanka.

INTRODUCTION: Russell's viper envenoming in dogs is a significant problem in Sri Lanka. The current study focused on investigating clinical profile, laboratory findings of three selected tests and to develop a treatment strategy with Indian polyvalent Anti-Venom Serum (AVS). It was also intended to report adverse effects and complications caused by both Russell's viper venom (RVV) and AVS in Russell's Viper (RV) envenomed dogs. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate and report the clinical manifestations, to find out the minimum effective vials of AVS and to record AVS induced adverse reactions of RV envenoming in dogs. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A prospective study was conducted on Russell's viper bitten dogs (n = 65) admitted to the Veterinary Teaching Hospital (VTH) in Sri Lanka. Indian polyvalent AVS was used to treat all the envenomed dogs. The number of vials of AVS that was administered to a patient was decided upon by a second degree polynomial model with a number of vials of AVS in the X axis verses Prothrombine Time (PT), Activated Partial Thromboplastine Time (aPTT) and Clotting Time (CT) in the Y axis respectively. RESULTS: Varying degrees of pain were exhibited by all the victim dogs. Mild swelling and necrosis at the site of bite was seen in 54% (n = 35) and 37% (n = 24) of dogs respectively. Prolonged values of, PT, aPTT and CT were seen from all the RV envenomed dogs. The mean leukocyte count in these dogs was 39.79 × 103/µL (normal range; 4-20 × 103/µL) (IQR:29.05 × 103/µL-45.92 × 103/µL). Statistical analysis showed that the initial vials of 7 AVS would be the minimum required vials. Therefore, a range of 6-15 AVS vials in total were administered to these dogs and in 7.6% (n = 5) of dogs, the results of PT, aPTT and CT became normal with 6 AVS vials at 32-97 minutes. Acute Renal Failure (ARF) was detected from 29% (n = 19) of dogs as a complication. CONCLUSIONS: Systemic clinical signs of haemorrhagic lesions, cardio respiratory toxicities were common in Russell's viper envenomed dogs. Initially 6 vials of AVS must be administered. AVS induced reactions were reported commonly. Russell's viper envenoming was found to be lethal in dogs.

Surveillance Opportunities and the Need for Intersectoral Collaboration on Rabies in Sri Lanka.

Sri Lanka is progressing towards its goal of eliminating human rabies. This goal rests on programs designed to limit canine rabies, which in turn requires a combination of targeted dog rabies control and a better understanding of the movement of the virus between domestic animals, people, and wildlife. Coordinated and integrated surveillance of the disease between human and animal health sectors underpins successful rabies elimination. Our objective was to review surveillance data from 2005 to 2014 to assemble the first multispecies synthesis of rabies information in Sri Lanka and, in doing so, assess needs and opportunities for a One Health approach to rabies surveillance in the country. Our descriptive epidemiological findings were consistent with other studies showing a decline in human cases, endemic and unchanging numbers of dog cases, a relationship between human density and the occurrence of human and animal cases, and significant gaps in understanding trends in rabies incidences in livestock and wildlife. Assessing the trends in the data from the three government organizations responsible for rabies surveillance was difficult due to lack of information on animal population sizes, unquantified sampling biases due to inequities in access to diagnostic capacities, regulatory and administrative barriers, and a continued reliance on clinical means to establish a diagnosis. The information required for a comprehensive rabies control programme was not standardized or consistent, was not in one place, showed significant gaps in completeness, and was not amenable to routine and rapid analysis. Achieving rabies elimination in Sri Lanka would benefit from harmonization of diagnostic and information management standards across animal and human health sectors as well as equitable access to diagnostic capacity for all regions and species.

Dimensional ultrasonographic relationship of the right lobe of pancreas with associated anatomic landmarks in clinically normal dogs.

The purpose of this prospective study was to establish the ultrasonographic characteristics of the dimension of the right pancreatic lobe with that of the associated anatomic landmarks in healthy dogs. Ultrasonographic examinations were performed on 25 dogs. The thickness of the right pancreatic lobe was compared with that of mural thickness of duodenum, diameter of duodenum, pancreatic duct, abdominal aorta, portal vein, caudal vena cava, and length and width of the right kidney and right adrenal gland. The correlation between each pancreatic parameter and the dimensions of the anatomical landmarks were assessed using linear regression analysis and Pearson's correlation coefficient (r) test. Significant, but weak linear correlations were observed between thickness of right pancreatic lobe with that of duodenum mural thickness (r=0.605, R(2)=0.339, P=0.001); duodenum diameter (r=0.573, R(2)=0.299, P=0.003); and right adrenal gland length (r=0.508, R(2)=0.052, P=0.01). There was no significant dimensional relationship with other selected anatomic landmarks. The ratio between the thickness of right pancreatic lobe and the mural thickness of duodenum, diameter of duodenum and length of right adrenal gland were 2.88 ± 0.53, 1.27 ± 0.27 and 0.81 ± 0.15, respectively. Calculating the ratio of thickness of the right pancreatic lobe with the dimension of significantly correlated anatomic landmarks is a useful and simple method for evaluating the size of the right pancreatic lobe in dogs in clinical practice.

Neuroleptanalgesia in wild Asian elephants (Elephas maximus maximus).

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the suitability of etorphine with acepromazine for producing prolonged neuroleptanalgesia in wild Asian elephants. ANIMALS: Ten adult wild elephants (four males, six females), free-roaming in the jungles of the north-western province of Sri Lanka. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Ten wild elephants were tranquilized for attachment of radio transmitter collars from September to November 1997, using Large-Animal Immobilon (C-Vet Veterinary Products, Leyland, UK), which is a combination of etorphine (2.45 mg mL(-1)) and acepromazine (10 mg mL(-1)). This was injected using projectile syringes fired from a Cap-Chur gun (Palmer Chemical Co. Inc., Atlanta, USA). A volume of 3.3 (2.5-4.5) mL Immobilon (6.12-11.02 mg of etorphine and 25-45 mg acepromazine) was injected intramuscularly after body mass estimation of individual elephants. RESULTS: The body condition of all darted elephants was good, and the mean (minimum-maximum) shoulder height was 225 (180-310) cm. The average approximate distance to elephants at firing was 26 (15-50) m. The average time to recumbency after injection was 18 (15-45) minutes. Nine out of 10 elephants remained in lateral recumbency (and did not require additional dosing) for a period of 42 (28-61) minutes. The respiratory and heart rates during anaesthesia were 7 (4-10) breaths and 52 (40-60) beats minute(-1), respectively. An equal volume (8.15-14.67 mg) of diprenorphine hydrochloride (Revivon, 3.26 mg mL(-1) diprenorphine; C-Veterinary Products, Leyland, UK) was given intravenously when the procedure was completed. Recovery (return to standing position) occurred in 6 (2-12) minutes after diprenorphine injection. Immediately afterwards, all elephants slowly retreated into the jungle without complications. Continuous radio tracking of the animals involved in this study indicated no post-operative mortality for several months after restraint. CONCLUSIONS/CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Etorphine-acepromazine combinations can be used safely in healthy wild Asian elephants for periods of restraint lasting up to 1 hour.