Individual and combined effects of water quality and empty bed contact time on As(V) removal by a fixed-bed iron oxide adsorber: implication for silicate precoating.

The individual and combined effects of changes in water quality (i.e. pH, initial concentrations of arsenate (As(V)) and competing ions) and empty bed contact time (EBCT) on As(V) removal performance of a fixed-bed adsorber (FBA) packed with a nanostructured goethite-based granular porous adsorbent were systematically studied under environmentally relevant conditions. Rapid small scale column tests (RSSCTs) were extensively conducted at different EBCTs with synthetic waters in which pH and the concentrations of competing ions (phosphate, silicate, and vanadate) were controlled. In the absence of the competing ions, the effects of initial As(V) concentration, pH, and EBCT on As(V) breakthrough curves were successfully predicted by the homogeneous surface diffusion model (HSDM) with adsorption isotherms predicted by the extended triple layer model (ETLM). The interference effects of silicate and phosphate on As(V) removal were strongly influenced by pH, their concentrations, and EBCT. In the presence of silicate (≤21 mg/L as Si), a longer EBCT surprisingly resulted in worse As(V) removal performance. We suggest this is because silicate, which normally exists at much higher concentration and moves more quickly through the bed than As(V), occupies or blocks adsorption sites on the media and interferes with later As(V) adsorption. Here, an alternative operating scheme of a FBA for As(V) removal is proposed to mitigate the silicate preloading. Silicate showed a strong competing effect to As(V) under the tested conditions. However, as the phosphate concentration increased, its interference effect dominated that of silicate. High phosphate concentration (>100 µg/L as P), as experienced in some regions, resulted in immediate As(V) breakthrough. In contrast to the observation in the presence of silicate, longer EBCT resulted in improved As(V) removal performance in the presence of phosphate. Vanadate was found to compete with As(V) as strongly as phosphate. This study reveals the competitive interactions of As(V) with the competing ions in actual adsorptive treatment systems and the dependence of optimal operation scheme and EBCT on water quality in seeking improved As(V) removal in a FBA.

Modeling the inactivation of microorganisms occluded in effluent wastewater particles to enhance operation of filtration and disinfection systems.

In disinfection systems, incomplete penetration of chlorine into effluent wastewater particles can result in a residual population of viable microorganisms. In this work, a combined experimental and numerical approach was used to quantify inactivation of microorganisms in effluent particles and identify combinations of particle removal and chlorine dose that would result in a reduction of occluded microorganisms for six full-scale facilities in the United States with different nitrification levels. The results reveal that combined chlorine is more effective for inactivating occluded microorganisms than free chlorine; model calibration results suggest that free chlorine is less effective because it is more reactive. However, nitrified effluents appear to have lower effluent particle concentrations, and decreases in particle concentrations significantly reduce the chlorine required. Additionally, in disinfection systems that are designed and operated based on inactivation of indicator organisms, the chlorine dose may be insufficient to inactivate occluded pathogens to levels consistent with current regulations.

Methane, carbon dioxide, and nitrous oxide emissions from septic tank systems.

Emissions of CH4, CO2, and N2O from conventional septic tank systems are known to occur, but there is a dearth of information as to the extent. Mass emission rates of CH4, CO2, and N2O, as measured with a modified flux chamber approach in eight septic tank systems, were determined to be 11, 33.3, and 0.005 g capita(-1) day(-1), respectively, in this research. Existing greenhouse gas (GHG) emission models based on BOD (biochemical oxygen demand) loading have estimated methane emissions to be as high as 27.1 g CH4 capita(-1) day(-1), more than twice the value measured in our study, and concluded that septic tanks are potentially significant sources of GHGs due to the large number of systems currently in use. Based on the measured CH4 emission value, a revised CH4 conversion factor of 0.22 (compared to 0.5) for use in the emissions models is suggested. Emission rates of CH4, CO2, and N2O were also determined from measurements of gas concentrations and flow rates in the septic vent system and were found to be 10.7, 335, and 0.2 g capita(-1)day(-1), respectively. The excellent agreement in the CH4 emission rates between the flux chamber and the vent values indicates the dominant CH4 source is the septic tank.

Factorial experimental designs for enhancement of concurrent poly(hydroxyalkanoate) production and brewery wastewater treatment.

The influence of four main process parameters--solids retention time (SRT), hydraulic retention time (HRT), anoxic-oxic cycling, and carbon-to-nitrogen ratio (C/N ratio)--on poly(hydroxyalkanoate) (PHA) production, while treating brewery wastewater, was studied. Two sets of two-level, three-factor experimental designs were implemented to (1) determine the effects and interactions among process parameters, (2) assess their significance to PHA production, and (3) approximate optimal operational conditions. The HRT and SRT were found to be the crucial operational parameters affecting PHA production. The highest PHA content of 55% (on a cell-weight basis) was produced at a 4-day HRT and 4-day SRT, whereas a maximum PHA concentration of 907 mg/L was obtained at a 2-day HRT and 12-day SRT. The effect of anoxic conditions on PHA production was insignificant. The C/N ratio played a more important role in the PHA concentration in the system than in the PHA content in the biomass.

Quantification of the effects of organic and carbonate buffers on arsenate and phosphate adsorption on a goethite-based granular porous adsorbent.

Interest in the development of oxide-based materials for arsenate removal has led to a variety of experimental methods and conditions for determining arsenate adsorption isotherms, which hinders comparative evaluation of their adsorptive capacities. Here, we systematically investigate the effects of buffer (HEPES or carbonate), adsorbent dose, and solution pH on arsenate and phosphate adsorption isotherms for a previously well characterized goethite-based adsorbent (Bayoxide E33 (E33)). All adsorption isotherms obtained at different adsorbate/adsorbent concentrations were identical when 1 mM of HEPES (96 mg C/L) was used as a buffer. At low aqueous arsenate and phosphate concentration (∼1.3 µM), however, adsorption isotherms obtained using 10 mM of NaHCO(3) buffer, which is a reasonable carbonate concentration in groundwater, are significantly different from those obtained without buffer or with HEPES. The carbonate competitive effects were analyzed using the extended triple layer model (ETLM) with the adsorption equilibrium constant of carbonate calibrated using independent published carbonate adsorption data for pure goethite taking into consideration the different surface properties. The successful ETLM calculations of arsenate adsorption isotherms for E33 under various conditions allowed quantitative comparison of the arsenate adsorption capacity between E33 and other major adsorbents initially tested under varied experimental conditions in the literature.

Extended triple layer modeling of arsenate and phosphate adsorption on a goethite-based granular porous adsorbent.

The extended triple layer model (ETLM), which is consistent with spectroscopic and theoretical molecular evidence, is first systematically tested for its capability to model adsorption of arsenate and phosphate, a strong competitor, on a common goethite-based granular porous adsorptive media (Bayoxide E33 (E33)) in water treatment systems under a wide range of solution conditions. Deprotonated bidentate-binuclear, protonated bidentate-binuclear, and deprotonated monodentate complexes are chosen as surface species for both arsenate and phosphate. The estimated values of the ETLM parameters of arsenate for the adsorbent are close to those for pure goethite minerals previously determined by others. The ETLM predictions for arsenate and phosphate adsorption basically agree with experimental results over a wide range of pH, surface coverage, and solid concentrations. High background electrolyte concentration (i.e., I = 0.1 M), however, was found to strongly impact arsenate and phosphate adsorption on E33 probably because of the porous structure of the adsorbent, which cannot be observed for pure goethite minerals and could not be completely modeled by the ETLM. Prediction of phosphate adsorption isotherms at higher pH were relatively poor, and this may suggest searching for alternative surface species for phosphate. Since adsorption equilibrium constants of major coexisting ions encountered in water treatment systems for goethite minerals have been estimated by others, the application of ETLM theory to this common goethite-based adsorptive media will enable us to understand how those coexisting ions macroscopically and thermodynamically interact with arsenate and phosphate in the environment of adsorptive water treatment system in a way consistent with molecular and spectroscopic evidence.

Clogging in intermittently dosed sand filters used for wastewater treatment.

Clogging in intermittent sand filter (ISF) systems was analyzed using an unsaturated flow model coupled with a reactive transport model. Based on the results of a model sensitivity analysis, several variables were determined to be important in the clogging phenomena observed in ISFs, including hydraulic loading rate, influent chemical oxygen demand (COD) concentration, filter dosing frequency, and time of operation. Several modes of operation were identified that minimize the growth of bacteria at the filter surface. Following the sensitivity analysis, several case studies where ISF clogging was documented were simulated using the model. The results from the case study model simulations were found to be correlated with the total suspended solids loading rate (TSSLR) at the point of clogging. A model was developed that relates biomass development at the surface of ISFs with the TSSLR that can be sustained without clogging. The engineering significance of the model is presented in terms of operational and design considerations.

Production of polyhydroxyalkanoate during treatment of tomato cannery wastewater.

Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) production was achieved using tomato cannery waste coupled with a mixed microbial culture during wastewater treatment. The two-stage PHA production process comprised a sequencing batch reactor (SBR), operating under a periodic feast-famine regime, to accomplish simultaneously wastewater treatment and selection of PHA-accumulating microbes, followed by a batch reactor for the production of PHA-rich biomass. The SBRs were efficient at removing soluble carbon (84%), ammonia (100%), and phosphorus (76%). Meanwhile, PHA-accumulating microbes were enriched under the SBR operating conditions, and PHA content on a cell-weight basis was within the range 7 to 11% in nonfiltered wastewater and 2 to 8% in filtered wastewater. Subsequently, batch studies were implemented with varying loading rates, ranging from 0.4 to 3.2 food-to-microorganism ratios. A maximum 20% PHA content on a cell-weight basis was obtained. Based on the experimental results, a PHA biosynthesis-degradation kinetic model was developed to (1) aid in the design of a pilot- or full-scale PHA production process coupled with wastewater treatment and (2) determine optimal conditions for harvest of PHA-rich biomass.

Cloth media filtration and membrane microfiltration: serial operation.

A combined system comprised of a cloth media filter and a membrane microfilter operated in series was used to treat secondary effluent. The study objective was to investigate the effect of premembrane filtration on the maximum sustainable membrane flux, transmembrane pressure, and effluent quality. The maximum sustainable time-averaged flux under predefined operating conditions (i.e., 15-minute process cycle, 24-hour chemical cleaning cycle, and 30-day intensive cleaning cycle) was 127 L/m(2)x h. Typical flux rates for secondary effluent ranged from 40 to 55 L/m(2) x h. Effluent water quality from the combined system was high and independent of membrane flux and influent quality. Average membrane effluent water quality values were 0.04 NTU for turbidity and 1.4 mg/L for 5-day biochemical oxygen demand. Neither total nor fecal coliforms were detected. Based on the results presented herein, prefiltration would provide an annualized cost savings of approximately 12% over microfiltration alone for a 3.8 x 10(3) m(3)/d treatment facility.

Sludge accumulation, characteristics, and pathogen inactivation in four primary waste stabilization ponds in central Mexico.

To support the development of safe and feasible sludge management strategies, the accumulation rates of sludge and its characteristics were studied in four primary wastewater stabilization ponds (WSPs) in central Mexico (three facultative and one anaerobic). The accumulation rates and distribution of sludge were determined by measuring the thickness of the sludge layer at 8-40 locations throughout each pond. The average, per capita sludge accumulation rates ranged from 0.021 to 0.036m(3)/person/yr. In the anaerobic pond the sludge distribution was uniform throughout the pond, whereas in the three facultative ponds most of the sludge accumulated directly in front of the inlet. To measure the horizontal and vertical variation in the sludge characteristics, sludge cores were collected from 3 to 7 locations in three of the ponds. Each core was divided into 4 sub-samples in which various physical, chemical, and microbiological parameters were measured. In addition, the inactivation of several pathogen indicator organisms was studied in a batch of sludge for 7 months. Based on the microbiological results, it is concluded that reasonable estimates of the inactivation of fecal coliform bacteria, fecal enterococci, F+ coliphage, somatic coliphage, and Ascaris eggs in WSP sludge in central Mexico can be made using first-order rate constants of 0.1, 0.1, 0.01, 0.001, and 0.001d(-1), respectively. From the observed changes in the concentrations of total solids and the volatile to fixed solids ratio, empirical equations were developed to describe anaerobic degradation and compression, which are the two most important processes affecting the volume of sludge after its deposition.

Detection of Cryptosporidium parvum in secondary effluents using a most probable number-polymerase chain reaction assay.

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used to detect Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in secondary effluent samples collected from activated-sludge facilities. Serial dilutions of the purified nucleic acid extracts from the samples were made and PCR was conducted to estimate the C. parvum oocyst concentration via a Poisson distribution-based most probable number (MPN). The degree of oocysts associated with wastewater particles was also evaluated. The sensitivity of the MPN-PCR assay was 20 oocysts/PCR unit. The detection limit of the concentration, extraction, and purification protocols in phosphate buffer saline spiked with a known concentration of oocysts ranged from 1.1 to 4.6 oocysts/L; the detection limit for the wastewater samples ranged from 11 to 4200 oocysts/L depending on the extent of inhibition in each sample. The recovery efficiency of the oocysts ranged from 48 to 59% in most samples. Oocysts were found in two out of seven samples with concentrations of 203 and 308 oocysts/L, as estimated by the MPN-PCR method. The oocysts were found only in the filtrate of the grab samples; particle-associated oocysts were not detected. Association of spiked C. parvum oocysts with particles in secondary effluent drawn from wastewater plants with varying operating conditions indicated a weak correlation between the degree of association and the mean cell residence time of the system.

Performance evaluation of a cloth-media disk filter for wastewater reclamation.

A cloth-media disk filter (CMDF) was evaluated as an alternative to granular-medium filtration for use in wastewater recycling applications. The CMDF was effective for filtration of effluent from an activated-sludge treatment process. Effluent turbidity values from the CMDF were consistently less than California's wastewater recycling application limit of 2 nephelometric turbidity units (NTU) for influent turbidity values of up to 25 NTU at hydraulic loading rates varying between 7 and 15 m/h (2.86 and 6.1 gpm/sq ft). The filter produced 154 m/d (3781 gpd/sq ft) at a hydraulic loading rate of 7 m/h (2.86 gpm/sq ft) with high turbidity (6 to 25 NTU) and 330 m/d (8102 gpd/sq ft) at a hydraulic loading rate of 15 m/h (6.1 gpm/sq ft) with low influent turbidity (< or = 6 NTU/m2 [6 NTU/sq ft] of filter cloth). The backwash water required by the CMDF at HLRs between 7 and 15 m/h (2.86 and 6.1 gpm/sq ft) and corresponding solids loading rates between 5 and 32 kg/(m2 x d) (0.21 and 1.35 lb/d/sq ft) varied from 2 to 10% of the total influent flow. Thus, the CMDF could consistently meet the recycling requirements of a turbidity less than 2 NTU over a broad range of influent turbidity values and hydraulic loading rates.

Determination of the inactivation rate of Ascaris eggs in wastewater stabilization pond sludge using dialysis chambers and sludge cores.

The inactivation rate of Ascaris eggs was studied in the sludge layer of a primary, facultative wastewater stabilization pond located in Mexico City. Two independent methods, sludge cores and dialysis chambers, were used, to determine the inactivation rates through which a comprehensive picture of the inactivation was gained. The dialysis chambers provided a detailed picture of the initial inactivation (14 months) at one location in the pond, whereas the sludge cores provided less precise information about the inactivation rate at several locations and over the entire lifetime of the pond (10 years). The inactivation curve was characterized by an initial lag phase, a period of roughly first-order inactivation, and a tailing region. During the first year, 50 to 60% of the eggs were inactivated, after which the rate decreased. Although the observed, initial first-order rate constant was greater than 0.002 d(-1), the average, long-term rate constant was closer to 0.001 d(-1).

Association of coliform bacteria with wastewater particles: impact of operational parameters of the activated sludge process.

The fraction of particles with associated coliform bacteria (PAC) in the activated sludge process was evaluated using a 16S rRNA oligonucleotide probe specific to the family Enterobacteriaceae. The PAC was found to decline exponentially with increasing mean cell residence times (MCRTs). The factors influencing the formation of PAC, identified with simplified mass balance relationships. are the concentration of particles, the concentration of dispersed (non-particle associated) coliform bacteria, and the MCRT. The concentration of dispersed coliform bacteria was found to decline with increasing MCRTs. The rate of decline was greater than the typical half-life attributed to endogenous decay, suggesting that other factors (e.g., predation by protozoa) influence the concentration of dispersed coliform bacteria, and subsequently the formation of PAC. Given that the association of targeted organisms with particles adversely impacts the performance of a disinfection system, studies targeted at the fate of organisms other than coliform bacteria in the activated sludge process are of paramount importance in assessing the health risks of post-disinfected effluents.