Coexpression and Copurification of RNA-Protein Complexes in Escherichia coli.

For structural, biochemical, or pharmacological studies, it is required to have pure RNA in large quantities. We previously devised a generic approach that allows for efficient in vivo expression of recombinant RNA in Escherichia coli. We have extended the "tRNA scaffold" method to RNA-protein coexpression in order to express and purify RNA by affinity in native condition. As a proof of concept, we present the expression and the purification of the AtRNA-mala in complex with the MS2 coat protein.

Expression and Purification of RNA-Protein Complexes in Escherichia coli.

For structural, biochemical or pharmacological studies, it is required to have pure RNA in large quantities. We previously devised a generic approach that allows efficient in vivo expression of recombinant RNA in Escherichia coli. We have extended the "tRNA scaffold" method to RNA/protein co-expression in order to express and purify RNA by affinity in native condition. As a proof-of-concept, we present the expression and the purification of the AtRNA-mala in complex with the MS2 coat protein.

In vivo tmRNA protection by SmpB and pre-ribosome binding conformation in solution.

TmRNA is an abundant RNA in bacteria with tRNA and mRNA features. It is specialized in trans-translation, a translation rescuing system. We demonstrate that its partner protein SmpB binds the tRNA-like region (TLD) in vivo and chaperones the fold of the TLD-H2 region. We use an original approach combining the observation of tmRNA degradation pathways in a heterologous system, the analysis of the tmRNA digests by MS and NMR, and co-overproduction assays of tmRNA and SmpB. We study the conformation in solution of tmRNA alone or in complex with one SmpB before ribosome binding using SAXS. Our data show that Mg(2+) drives compaction of the RNA structure and that, in the absence of Mg(2+), SmpB has a similar effect albeit to a lesser extent. Our results show that tmRNA is intrinsically structured in solution with identical topology to that observed on complexes on ribosomes which should facilitate its subsequent recruitment by the 70S ribosome, free or preloaded with one SmpB molecule.

Co-expression of RNA-protein complexes in Escherichia coli and applications to RNA biology.

RNA has emerged as a major player in many cellular processes. Understanding these processes at the molecular level requires homogeneous RNA samples for structural, biochemical and pharmacological studies. We previously devised a generic approach that allows efficient in vivo expression of recombinant RNA in Escherichia coli. In this work, we have extended this method to RNA/protein co-expression. We have engineered several plasmids that allow overexpression of RNA-protein complexes in E. coli. We have investigated the potential of these tools in many applications, including the production of nuclease-sensitive RNAs encapsulated in viral protein pseudo-particles, the co-production of non-coding RNAs with chaperone proteins, the incorporation of a post-transcriptional RNA modification by co-production with the appropriate modifying enzyme and finally the production and purification of an RNA-His-tagged protein complex by nickel affinity chromatography. We show that this last application easily provides pure material for crystallographic studies. The new tools we report will pave the way to large-scale structural and molecular investigations of RNA function and interactions with proteins.

RNA-methyltransferase TrmA is a dual-specific enzyme responsible for C5-methylation of uridine in both tmRNA and tRNA.

In bacteria, trans-translation rescues stalled ribosomes by the combined action of tmRNA (transfer-mRNA) and its associated protein SmpB. The tmRNA 5' and 3' ends fold into a tRNA-like domain (TLD), which shares structural and functional similarities with tRNAs. As in tRNAs, the UUC sequence of the T-arm of the TLD is post-transcriptionally modified to m (5)UψC. In tRNAs of gram-negative bacteria, formation of m (5)U is catalyzed by the SAM-dependent methyltransferase TrmA, while formation of m (5)U at two different positions in rRNA is catalyzed by distinct site-specific methyltransferases RlmC and RlmD. Here, we show that m (5)U formation in tmRNAs is exclusively due to TrmA and should be considered as a dual-specific enzyme. The evidence comes from the lack of m (5)U in purified tmRNA or TLD variants recovered from an Escherichia coli mutant strain deleted of the trmA gene. Detection of m (5)U in RNA was performed by NMR analysis.

Selective RNase H cleavage of target RNAs from a tRNA scaffold.

In vivo overproduction of tRNA chimeras yields an RNA insert within a tRNA scaffold. For some applications, it may be necessary to discard the scaffold. Here we present a protocol for selective cleavage of the RNA of interest from the tRNA scaffold, using RNase H and two DNA oligonucleotides. After cleavage, we show that the RNA of interest can be isolated in a one-step purification. This method has, in particular, applications in structural investigations of RNA.

Purification of RNA expressed in vivo inserted in a tRNA scaffold.

For structural, biochemical, or pharmacological studies, it is required to have pure RNA in large quantities. In vitro transcription or chemical synthesis are the principal methods to produce RNA. Here, we describe an alternative method allowing RNA production in bacteria and its purification by liquid chromatography. In a few days, between 10 and 100 mg of pure RNA are obtained with this technique.

New peptide deformylase inhibitors and cooperative interaction: a combination to improve antibacterial activity.

OBJECTIVES: Bacterial drug resistance is a worrying public health problem and there is an urgent need for research and development to provide new antibacterial molecules. Peptide deformylase (PDF) is now a well-described intracellular target selected for the design of a new antibiotic group, PDF inhibitors (PDFIs). The initial bacterial susceptibility to an inhibitor of a cytoplasmic target is directly associated with the diffusion of the compound through the membrane barrier of Gram-negative bacteria and with its cytosolic accumulation at the required concentration. METHODS: We have recently demonstrated that the activity of different PDFIs is strongly dependent on the accumulation of the active molecules by using permeabilizing agents, efflux inhibitors or efflux-mutated strains. In this work we assessed various combination protocols using different putative inhibitors (PDFIs, methionine aminopeptidase inhibitors etc.) to improve antibacterial activity against various resistant Gram-negative bacteria. RESULTS: The maximum effect was observed when combining actinonin with a dual inhibitor of methionine aminopeptidase and PDF, this molecule being also able to interact with the target while actinonin is bound to the PDF active site. CONCLUSIONS: Such a combination of inhibitors acting on two tightly associated metabolic steps results in a cooperative effect on bacterial cells and opens an original way to combat multidrug-resistant bacteria.

Trapping conformational states along ligand-binding dynamics of peptide deformylase: the impact of induced fit on enzyme catalysis.

For several decades, molecular recognition has been considered one of the most fundamental processes in biochemistry. For enzymes, substrate binding is often coupled to conformational changes that alter the local environment of the active site to align the reactive groups for efficient catalysis and to reach the transition state. Adaptive substrate recognition is a well-known concept; however, it has been poorly characterized at a structural level because of its dynamic nature. Here, we provide a detailed mechanism for an induced-fit process at atomic resolution. We take advantage of a slow, tight binding inhibitor-enzyme system, actinonin-peptide deformylase. Crystal structures of the initial open state and final closed state were solved, as well as those of several intermediate mimics captured during the process. Ligand-induced reshaping of a hydrophobic pocket drives closure of the active site, which is finally "zipped up" by additional binding interactions. Together with biochemical analyses, these data allow a coherent reconstruction of the sequence of events leading from the encounter complex to the key-lock binding state of the enzyme. A "movie" that reconstructs this entire process can be further extrapolated to catalysis.

Large scale expression and purification of recombinant RNA in Escherichia coli.

Stable, folded RNA are involved in many key cellular processes and can be used as tools for biological, pharmacological and/or molecular design studies. However, their widespread use has been somewhat limited by their fragile nature and by the difficulties associated with their production on a large scale, which were limited to in vitro methods. This work reviews the novel techniques recently developed that allow efficient expression of recombinant RNA in vivo in Escherichia coli. Based on the extensive data available on the genetic and metabolic mechanisms of this model organism, conditions for optimal production can be derived. Combined with a large repertoire of RNA motifs which can be assembled by recombinant DNA techniques, this opens the way to the modular design of RNA molecules with novel properties.

1H, 13C and 15N NMR assignments of the E. coli peptide deformylase in complex with a natural inhibitor called actinonin.

In eubacteria, the formyl group of nascent polypeptides is removed by peptide deformylase protein (PDF). This is the reason why PDF has received special attention in the course of the search for new antibacterial agents. We observed by NMR that actinonin, a natural inhibitor, induced drastic changes in the HSQC spectrum of E. coli PDF. We report here the complete NMR chemical shift assignments of PDF resonances bound to actinonin.

Design of tRNA(Lys)3 ligands: fragment evolution and linker selection guided by NMR spectroscopy.

A fragment-based approach for the synthesis of ligands of tRNA(Lys) (3), the HIV reverse-transcription primer, is described. The use of NMR spectroscopy has proved to be very useful in this approach, not only to detect low-affinity complexes between small compounds and RNA, but also to provide information on their binding mode and on the way they can be connected. This NMR-spectroscopy-guided analysis enabled us to design micromolar ligands after the optimisation and connection of millimolar fragments with an appropriate linker. The influence of the linker region on the binding affinity and selectivity outlines the importance of having a flexible assemblage strategy with a variety of linkers in such an approach.

A generic protocol for the expression and purification of recombinant RNA in Escherichia coli using a tRNA scaffold.

RNA production using in vivo transcription by Escherichia coli allows preparation of milligram quantities of RNA for biochemical, biophysical and structural investigations. We describe here a generic protocol for the overproduction and purification of recombinant RNA using liquid chromatography. The strategy utilizes a transfer RNA (tRNA) as a scaffold that can be removed from the RNA of interest by digestion of the fusion RNA at a designed site by RNase H. The tRNA scaffold serves to enhance the stability and to promote the proper expression of its fusion partners. This protocol describes how to construct a tRNA fusion RNA expression vector; to conduct a pilot experiment to assess the yield of the recombinant RNA both before and after processing of the fusion RNA by RNase H; and to purify the target RNA on a large scale for structural or functional studies. This protocol greatly facilitates production of RNA in a time frame of approximately 3 weeks from design to purification. As compared with in vitro methods (transcription, chemical synthesis), this approach is simple, cheap and well suited for large-scale expression and isotope labeling.

Ribosome hijacking: a role for small protein B during trans-translation.

Tight recognition of codon-anticodon pairings by the ribosome ensures the accuracy and fidelity of protein synthesis. In eubacteria, translational surveillance and ribosome rescue are performed by the 'tmRNA-SmpB' system (transfer messenger RNA-small protein B). Remarkably, entry and accommodation of aminoacylated-tmRNA into stalled ribosomes occur without a codon-anticodon interaction but in the presence of SmpB. Here, we show that within a stalled ribosome, SmpB interacts with the three universally conserved bases G530, A1492 and A1493 that form the 30S subunit decoding centre, in which canonical codon-anticodon pairing occurs. The footprints at positions A1492 and A1493 of a small decoding centre, as well as on a set of conserved SmpB amino acids, were identified by nuclear magnetic resonance. Mutants at these residues display the same growth defects as for DeltasmpB strains. The SmpB protein has functional and structural similarities with initiation factor 1, and is proposed to be a functional mimic of the pairing between a codon and an anticodon.

Structure-activity relationship analysis of the peptide deformylase inhibitor 5-bromo-1H-indole-3-acetohydroxamic acid.

The lead compound 5-bromoindolyl-3-acetohydroxamic acid (10) was recently identified as a potent inhibitor of bacterial peptide deformylases (PDFs). The synthesis and associated activities of new variants were investigated at position 5 to optimize the fit at the S1' subsite and at position 1 to improve both potency and antibacterial activity. A morphomimetic series, termed "reverse-indole" was synthesized. The indole derivatives remain selective in vitro inhibitors of PDF2 over PDF1. Bromide is the best group at position 5 and cannot be replaced by bulkier substituents. In this series, an N-benzyl group at position 1 in 19 e improves the potency relative to 10. In the case of PDF1, and unlike PDF2, potency is increased as the alkyl chain becomes longer and more ramified. These data support the results of NMR footprinting experiments that were performed with (15)N-labeled Ni-PDF and the corresponding 3-acetic acid derivatives. Most of the compounds have antibacterial activities toward B. subtilis, but are inefficient toward E. coli owing to active removal by the major efflux pumps. Among the reverse-indole derivatives, 23 c, which is the exact mirror image of 19 e, shows strong potency in vitro against PDF2, but little against PDF1, although this compound displays significant antibacterial activity toward an efflux-minus mutant of E. coli. All the compounds were assessed with major pathogenic bacteria, but most of them are inefficient antibacterial agents. The reverse-indole compounds 23 a and 23 c have potency against S. pneumoniae that is similar to that of actinonin.

A unique conformation of the anticodon stem-loop is associated with the capacity of tRNAfMet to initiate protein synthesis.

In all organisms, translational initiation takes place on the small ribosomal subunit and two classes of methionine tRNA are present. The initiator is used exclusively for initiation of protein synthesis while the elongator is used for inserting methionine internally in the nascent polypeptide chain. The crystal structure of Escherichia coli initiator tRNA(f)(Met) has been solved at 3.1 A resolution. The anticodon region is well-defined and reveals a unique structure, which has not been described in any other tRNA. It encompasses a Cm32*A38 base pair with a peculiar geometry extending the anticodon helix, a base triple between A37 and the G29-C41 pair in the major groove of the anticodon stem and a modified stacking organization of the anticodon loop. This conformation is associated with the three GC basepairs in the anticodon stem, characteristic of initiator tRNAs and suggests a mechanism by which the translation initiation machinery could discriminate the initiator tRNA from all other tRNAs.

Crystal structure of Thermus thermophilus tRNA m1A58 methyltransferase and biophysical characterization of its interaction with tRNA.

Methyltransferases from the m(1)A(58) tRNA methyltransferase (TrmI) family catalyze the S-adenosyl-l-methionine-dependent N(1)-methylation of tRNA adenosine 58. The crystal structure of Thermus thermophilus TrmI, in complex with S-adenosyl-l-homocysteine, was determined at 1.7 A resolution. This structure is closely related to that of Mycobacterium tuberculosis TrmI, and their comparison enabled us to enlighten two grooves in the TrmI structure that are large enough and electrostatically compatible to accommodate one tRNA per face of TrmI tetramer. We have then conducted a biophysical study based on electrospray ionization mass spectrometry, site-directed mutagenesis, and molecular docking. First, we confirmed the tetrameric oligomerization state of TrmI, and we showed that this protein remains tetrameric upon tRNA binding, with formation of complexes involving one to two molecules of tRNA per TrmI tetramer. Second, three key residues for the methylation reaction were identified: the universally conserved D170 and two conserved aromatic residues Y78 and Y194. We then used molecular docking to position a N(9)-methyladenine in the active site of TrmI. The N(9)-methyladenine snugly fits into the catalytic cleft, where the side chain of D170 acts as a bidentate ligand binding the amino moiety of S-adenosyl-l-methionine and the exocyclic amino group of the adenosine. Y194 interacts with the N(9)-methyladenine ring, whereas Y78 can stabilize the sugar ring. From our results, we propose that the conserved residues that form the catalytic cavity (D170, Y78, and Y194) are essential for fashioning an optimized shape of the catalytic pocket.

Enzyme structural plasticity and the emergence of broad-spectrum antibiotic resistance.

The emergence of multi-resistant pathogenic bacteria is a worldwide health issue. Recently, clinical variants of a single antibiotic-modifying acetyltransferase, AAC(6')-Ib-a variant of aminoglycoside 6'-N-acetyltransferase-have been identified that confer extended resistance to most aminoglycosides and, more surprisingly, to structurally unrelated fluoroquinolones. The corresponding gene is carried by mobile genetic elements and is present in most multi-resistant pathogenic strains, hence making it a serious threat to current therapies. Here, we report the crystal structures of both narrow- and broad-spectrum resistance variants of this enzyme, which reveal the structural basis for the emergence of extended resistance. The active site shows an important plasticity and has adapted to new substrates by a large-scale gaping process. We have also obtained co-crystals with both substrates, and with a simple transition state analogue, which provides new clues for the design of inhibitors of this resistance mechanism.