Genotypic and epidemiologic characterization of extended-spectrum cephalosporin resistant Salmonella enterica from US beef feedlots.

In the US, nontyphoidal Salmonellae are a common foodborne zoonotic pathogen causing gastroenteritis. Invasive Salmonella infections caused by extended-spectrum cephalosporin resistant (ESCR) phenotypes are more likely to result in treatment failure and adverse health outcomes, especially in severe pediatric Salmonella infections where the extended-spectrum ß-lactams are the therapy of choice. To examine the genetic and epidemiologic characteristics of ESCR Salmonellae which may enter the food chain, we characterized 44 ceftiofur-resistant Salmonella isolates from the National Animal Health Monitoring System (NAHMS) 2011 beef cattle feedlot health and management study. As part of the NAHMS Feedlot 2011 study, 5050 individual fecal samples from 68 large (1000+ head capacity) feedlots were cultured for Salmonella spp. The resulting 460 positive samples yielded 571 Salmonella isolates with 44 (8%) expressing an AmpC ß-lactamase phenotype. These phenotypic blaCMY-2Salmonella isolates represented 8 serotypes, most commonly S. Newport (n=14, 32%), S. Typhimurium (n=13, 30%), and S. Reading (n=5, 11%), followed by S. Dublin, S. Infantis, S. Montevideo, S. Rough O:i;v:1;7, and S. Uganda. Carriage of the blaCMY-2 gene was confirmed for all isolates expressing an AmpC ß-lactamase phenotype by PCR. Additionally, all 44 isolates were shown to carry the blaCMY-2 gene on a large IncA/C plasmid, a gene/plasmid combination which has been previously reported in multiple species. Other plasmids, including IncN, FIC, and FIIA, were also detected in some isolates. Cattle fed chlortetracycline were less likely to be positive for a blaCMY-2Salmonella isolate in their enteric flora compared to those not receiving chlortetracycline during the feeding period. Carriage of blaCMY-2 was more prevalent in Salmonella isolates originating from lighter weight cattle, cattle fed tylosin and dairy breeds. Our characterization of the NAHMS Feedlot 2011 study Salmonella isolates with ESCR phenotype shows that while other cephalosporin resistance mechanisms have been reported in US cattle, specific serotypes harboring blaCMY-2 on IncA/C plasmids may be the dominant resistance genotype.

Antimicrobial susceptibility of Clostridium difficile isolated from food animals on farms.

Clostridium difficile is commonly associated with a spectrum of disease in humans referred to as C. difficile-associated disease (CDAD) and use of antimicrobials is considered a risk factor for development of disease in humans. C. difficile can also inhabit healthy food animals and transmission to humans is possible. As a result of the complexity and cost of testing, C. difficile is rarely tested for antimicrobial susceptibility. A total of 376 C. difficile strains (94 each from swine and dairy feces, and 188 from beef cattle feces) were isolated from healthy food animals on farms during studies conducted by the National Animal Health Monitoring System. Using the Etest (AB Biodisk, Solna, Sweden), samples were tested for susceptibility to nine antimicrobials implicated as risk factors for CDAD (linezolid, amoxicillin-clavulanic acid, ampicillin, clindamycin, erythromycin, levofloxacin, metronidazole, rifampicin, and vancomycin). Vancomycin was active against all isolates of C. difficile (MIC90=3.0µg/ml) while almost all isolates (n=369; 98.1%) were resistant to levofloxacin. With the exception of vancomycin, resistance varied by animal species as follows: linezolid (8.5% resistance among swine versus 2.1 and 1.1% resistance among dairy and beef, respectively), clindamycin (56.4% resistance among swine versus 80% and 90.9% resistance among dairy and beef, respectively), and rifampicin (2.1% and 0% resistance among swine and dairy cattle isolates, respectively versus 14.3% resistance among beef isolates). Regardless of species, multiple drug resistance was observed most often to combinations of clindamycin and levofloxacin (n=195; 51.9%) and ampicillin, clindamycin and levofloxacin (n=41; 10.9%). The reason for the variability of resistance between animal species is unknown and requires further research.

Comparison of mixed effects models of antimicrobial resistance metrics of livestock and poultry Salmonella isolates from a national monitoring system.

Antimicrobial use in agriculture is considered a pathway for the selection and dissemination of resistance determinants among animal and human populations. From 1997 through 2003 the U.S. National Antimicrobial Resistance Monitoring System (NARMS) tested clinical Salmonella isolates from multiple animal and environmental sources throughout the United States for resistance to panels of 16-19 antimicrobials. In this study we applied two mixed effects models, the generalized linear mixed model (GLMM) and accelerated failure time frailty (AFT-frailty) model, to susceptible/resistant and interval-censored minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) metrics, respectively, from Salmonella enterica subspecies enterica serovar Typhimurium isolates from livestock and poultry. Objectives were to compare characteristics of the two models and to examine the effects of time, species, and multidrug resistance (MDR) on the resistance of isolates to individual antimicrobials, as revealed by the models. Fixed effects were year of sample collection, isolate source species and MDR indicators; laboratory study site was included as a random effect. MDR indicators were significant for every antimicrobial and were dominant effects in multivariable models. Temporal trends and source species influences varied by antimicrobial. In GLMMs, the intra-class correlation coefficient ranged up to 0.8, indicating that the proportion of variance accounted for by laboratory study site could be high. AFT models tended to be more sensitive, detecting more curvilinear temporal trends and species differences; however, high levels of left- or right-censoring made some models unstable and results uninterpretable. Results from GLMMs may be biased by cutoff criteria used to collapse MIC data into binary categories, and may miss signaling important trends or shifts if the series of antibiotic dilutions tested does not span a resistance threshold. Our findings demonstrate the challenges of measuring the AMR ecosystem and the complexity of interacting factors, and have implications for future monitoring. We include suggestions for future data collection and analyses, including alternative modeling approaches.

Comparison of individual, pooled, and composite fecal sampling methods for detection of Salmonella on U.S. dairy operations.

The objectives of this study were to estimate the prevalence of Salmonella for individual, pooled, and composite fecal samples and to compare culture results from each sample type for determining herd Salmonella infection status and identifying Salmonella serovar(s). During the U.S. Department of Agriculture National Animal Health Monitoring System Dairy 2007 study, data and samples were collected from dairy operations in 17 major dairy states. As part of the study, composite fecal samples (six per operation) were collected from cow areas, such as holding pens, alleyways, and lagoons, where manure accumulates. Fecal samples also were collected from individual cows (35 per operation), and fecal sample pools were created by combining samples from 5 cows (7 per operation). A total of 1,541 composite fecal samples were collected from 260 operations in 17 states, and 406 (26.3%) of these samples were culture positive for Salmonella. Among the 116 operations for which all three sample types were obtained, 41.4% (48 operations) were Salmonella culture positive based on individual samples, 39.7% (46 operations) were positive based on pooled samples, and 49.1% (57 operations) were positive based on composite fecal samples. Relative to individual samples, the sensitivity of composite fecal samples for determining herd infection status was 85.4% and the sensitivity of pooled fecal samples was 91.7%. On 33.6% of operations (39 of 116), Salmonella was cultured from all three fecal sample types (individual, pooled, and composite), and 20 (51.3%) of these operations had exactly the same serovar in all three sample types. Use of composite fecal samples is less costly and time-consuming than use of individual or pooled samples and provides similar results for detecting the presence and identifying serovars of Salmonella in dairy herds. Therefore, composite sampling may be an appropriate alternative to culture of individual samples when assessing Salmonella status in dairy herds.

Salmonella prevalence and antimicrobial susceptibility from the National Animal Health Monitoring System Swine 2000 and 2006 studies.

Concern about Salmonella contamination of food is compounded by fear that antimicrobials traditionally used to combat the infection will become useless due to rising antibiotic resistance. Livestock, in particular swine, often are blamed for illnesses caused by Salmonella and for increasing antibiotic resistance due to use of antibiotics in pigs. As part of the National Animal Health Monitoring System Swine 2000 and 2006 studies, swine fecal samples were cultured for Salmonella. These samples were collected from 123 operations in 17 states in 2000 and from 135 operations in 17 states in 2006. At each operation, 50 and 60 fecal samples were collected from late finisher pig pens in 2000 and 2006, respectively. Salmonella isolates were characterized to determine serogroup and serotype and were tested for susceptibility to a panel of 17 and 15 antimicrobial drugs in 2000 and 2006, respectively. A total of 5,470 and 7,788 samples were cultured for Salmonella in 2000 and 2006, respectively. Overall, 6.2% of the samples and 34.2% of the farms were positive for Salmonella in 2000. In 2006, 7.2% of the samples and 52.6% of the farms were positive. Salmonella Derby, Salmonella Typhimurium var. 5- (formerly Salmonella Typhimurium var. Copenhagen), and Salmonella Agona were the three serotypes most often recovered in both study years. The most common antimicrobial resistance pattern for Salmonella Derby in the two study years was resistance to streptomycin, sulfisoxazole, and tetracycline. Most isolates were resistant to tetracycline, sulfisoxazole, and streptomycin in both study years. The proportion of Salmonella isolates that were susceptible to all antimicrobials (pansusceptible) was 38.1% in 2000 and 20.4% in 2006. The proportion of Salmonella isolates that were resistant to three or more antimicrobials (multidrug resistant) was similar in 2000 and in 2006 (52.8 and 57.7%, respectively).

Distribution of Culicoides sonorensis (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) in Nebraska, South Dakota, and North Dakota: clarifying the epidemiology of bluetongue disease in the northern Great Plains region of the United States.

The presence or absence of the biting midge Culicoides sonorensis Wirth & Jones (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae), a primary vector of bluetongue viruses (genus Orbivirus, family Reoviridae, BTV) in North America, was assessed on ranches and farms across the Northern Great Plains region of the United States, specifically Nebraska, South Dakota, and North Dakota, as part of a 2-yr regional study of BTV exposure among cattle. Blacklight/suction trap samples totaling 280 2-night intervals were taken at 140 aquatic sites (potential larval habitat for C. sonorensis) on 82 livestock operations (ranches and farms) that span a south-to-north gradient of expected decreasing risk for exposure to BTV. In Nebraska, C. sonorensis populations were common and widespread, present at 15 of 18 operations. Of 32 operations sampled in South Dakota, seven of which were sampled in successive years, 18 were positive for C. sonorensis; 13 of 14 operations located west of the Missouri River were positive, whereas 13 of 18 operations east of the river were negative. Of 32 operations sampled in North Dakota, seven of which were sampled both years, 12 were positive for C. sonorensis. Six of eight operations located west and south of the Missouri River in North Dakota were positive, whereas 18 of 24 operations east and north of the river were negative for C. sonorensis. These data illustrate a well-defined pattern of C. sonorensis spatial distribution, with populations consistently present across Nebraska, western South Dakota, and western North Dakota; western South Dakota, and North Dakota encompass the Northwestern Plains Ecoregion where soils are nonglaciated and evaporation exceeds precipitation. In contrast, C. sonorensis populations were largely absent east of the Missouri River in South Dakota and North Dakota; this area comprises the Northwestern Glaciated Plains Ecoregion and Northern Glaciated Plains Ecoregion where surface soils reflect Wisconsinan glaciation and precipitation exceeds evaporation. In defining a well-demarcated pattern of population presence or absence on a regional scale, the data suggest that biogeographic factors regulate the distribution of C. sonorensis and in turn BTV exposure. These factors, ostensibly climate and soil type as they affect the suitability of larval habitat, may explain the absence of C. sonorensis, hence limited risk for exposure to BTV, across the eastern Northern Plains, upper Midwest, and possibly Northeast, regions of the United States.

Clostridium difficile from healthy food animals: optimized isolation and prevalence.

Two isolation methods were compared for isolation of Clostridium difficile from food animal feces. The single alcohol shock method (SS) used selective enrichment in cycloserine-cefoxitin fructose broth supplemented with 0.1% sodium taurocholate, followed by alcohol shock and isolation on tryptic soy agar supplemented with 5% sheep blood, and cycloserine-cefoxitin fructose agar. The double alcohol shock method (DS) used alcohol shock prior to and after selective enrichment in cycloserine-cefoxitin fructose broth supplemented with 0.1% sodium taurocholate, followed by isolation on tryptic soy agar supplemented with 5% sheep blood and cycloserine-cefoxitin fructose agar. A total of 55 (15.9%, n = 345) swine fecal samples, 32 (2.4%, n = 1,325) dairy cattle fecal samples, and 188 (6.3%, n = 2,965) beef cattle fecal samples were positive for C. difficile by either method. However, the DS was significantly better than the SS for the recovery of C. difficile from swine feces, while the SS was significantly better than the DS for the recovery of C. difficile from beef cattle feces. There was no significant difference between methods for the recovery of C. difficile from dairy cattle feces. This study suggests that food animals might harbor C. difficile and it provides critical information that isolation methods might not have universal application across animal species.

Prevalence, species distribution and antimicrobial resistance of enterococci isolated from US dairy cattle.

AIMS: To estimate prevalence and antimicrobial susceptibility of enterococci in faeces collected in 2007 from U.S. dairy cattle. METHODS AND RESULTS: A total of 718 faecal samples from 122 dairy cattle operations from 17 US States were collected and cultured for the presence of enterococci. One hundred and eighteen of the 122 operations (96·7%) had at least one dairy cow positive for enterococci and 88·7% (637 of 718) of the faecal samples were positive. At least ten different enterococcal species were found on the dairy operations and 90·7% (107 of 118) of the operations were positive for Enterococcus hirae followed by E. faecalis (40·7%; 48 of 118) and E. faecium (39%; 46 of 118). The highest percentage of resistant isolates were to lincomycin (92·3%; 587 of 636), flavomycin (71·9%; 457 of 636) and tetracycline (24·5%; 156 of 636). Multi-drug resistance (MDR) (resistance ≥ 2 antimicrobials) was observed to as many as seven antimicrobials regardless of class. CONCLUSION: In contrast to previous studies, faecal shedding of enterococci in dairy cattle occurred in almost 90% of cows sampled and represented a variety of enterococcal species. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF STUDY: Although this study demonstrated a high prevalence of antimicrobial-resistant enterococci from dairy cattle faeces in the United States, the contribution of dairy cattle as a source of antimicrobial-resistant enterococci that can be transmitted to humans remains unclear.

Arterial blood gas parameters of normal foals born at 1500 metres elevation.

REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Arterial blood gas analysis is widely accepted as a diagnostic tool to assess respiratory function in neonates. To the authors' knowledge, there are no published reports of arterial blood gas parameters in normal neonatal foals at altitude. OBJECTIVE: To provide information on arterial blood gas parameters of normal foals born at 1500 m elevation (Fort Collins, Colorado) in the first 48 h post partum. HYPOTHESIS: Foals born at 1500 m will have lower PaO2 and PaCO2 than foals born at sea level due to low inspired oxygen and compensatory hyperventilation occurring at altitude. METHODS: Sixteen foals were studied. Arterial blood gas analysis was performed within 1 h of foaling and subsequent samples were evaluated at 3, 6, 12, 24 and 48 h post partum. Data were compared to those previously reported in healthy foals born near sea level. RESULTS: Mean PaO2 was 53.0 mmHg (7.06 kPa) within 1 h of foaling, rising to 67.5 mmHg (9.00 kPa) at 48 h post partum. PaCO2 was 44.1 mmHg (5.88 kPa) within one hour of foaling, falling to 38.3 mmHg (5.11 kPa) at 48 h. Both PaO2 and PaCO2 were significantly lower in foals born at 1500 m elevation than those near sea level at several time points during the first 48 h. CONCLUSIONS AND POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: Foals at 1500 m elevation undergo hypobaric hypoxia and compensatory hyperventilation in the first 48 h. Altitude specific normal arterial blood values are an important reference for veterinarians providing critical care to equine neonates.

Risk associated with transportation and lairage on hide contamination with Salmonella enterica in finished beef cattle at slaughter.

Transportation of cattle to the slaughter plant could influence hide contamination with Salmonella enterica. Fecal and hide samples were obtained from 40 lots of cattle at the feedlot and again at the slaughter plant. Potential risk factors for hide contamination were evaluated. A multilevel Poisson regression model was used to determine whether transportation and lairage were associated with hide contamination by Salmonella. Cattle with hide samples positive for Salmonella at the feedlot had twice the risk of having positive slaughter hide samples compared with cattle without positive feedlot hide samples (relative risk [RR], 1.9). Cattle transported in trailers from which samples positive for Salmonella were collected had twice the risk of having positive slaughter hide samples compared with cattle transported in culture-negative trailers (RR, 2.3). Cattle transported for long distances had twice the risk of having positive hide samples at slaughter compared with cattle transported shorter distances (RR, 2.3). Cattle held in lairage pens contaminated with feces had twice the risk of having positive slaughter hide samples compared with cattle held in clean pens (RR, 1.8). Cattle held off feed longer than 18 h before loading had twice the risk of having positive slaughter hide samples compared with cattle held off feed for shorter times (RR, 1.7). Cattle that were agitated during loading had twice the risk of having positive slaughter hide samples compared with cattle that were calm (RR, 2.2). These findings suggest that variables associated with transportation and lairage can impact the presence of Salmonella on the hides of cattle at slaughter.

Impact of transportation and lairage on hide contamination with Escherichia coli O157 in finished beef cattle.

Transportation of cattle from the feedlot to the slaughter plant could influence hide contamination of Escherichia coli O157. A study was initiated to investigate the influence of transportation and lairage on shedding and hide contamination of E. coli O157. Fecal and hide samples were obtained from 40 pens of harvest-ready beef cattle at the feedlot prior to transport and again at the slaughter plant immediately after slaughter. Potential risk factors for hide contamination at the feedlot, during transport, and at slaughter were evaluated. A multilevel Poisson regression model was used to evaluate if transportation and lairage were associated with hide contamination by E. coli O157 in finished beef cattle. Lots of cattle held in E. coli O157-positive lairage pens had eight times greater risk of having positive slaughter hide samples compared with cattle held in culture-negative pens (relative risk, 8.0; 95% confidence interval, 1.6 to 38.8). Lots of cattle that were held in lairage pens contaminated with feces had three times greater risk for positive slaughter hide samples compared with cattle held in clean pens (relative risk, 3.1; 95% confidence interval, 1.2 to 7.9). Lots of cattle that were transported for long distances (> 160.9 km) had twice the risk of having positive hide samples at slaughter compared with cattle transported a shorter distance (relative risk, 2.4; 95% confidence interval, 1.1 to 5.1). These findings suggest that transportation and lairage should be considered in E. coli O157 control strategies.

Prevalence of serum antibodies to bovine herpesvirus-1 and bovine viral diarrhea virus in beef cattle in Uruguay.

Our objective was to determine the prevalence of serum antibodies to bovine herpesvirus-1 (BHV-1) and bovine viral diarrhea (BVD) virus in beef cattle in Uruguay. A random sample of 230 herds selected with probability proportional to population size based on the number of cattle was chosen from a list frame of all registered livestock farms as of June 1999. Sera from up to 10 heifers, cows and bulls (up to 30 sera total per herd) were collected on selected farms between March 2000 and March 2001 and evaluated by means of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs). Overall, 6358 serum samples were evaluated. We also collected data on previous diagnosis of BHV-1 or BVD infections and on the use of vaccines against these agents. The estimated prevalence of exposure to BHV-1 and BVD at the herd level for the Uruguayan beef population was 99% and 100%, respectively. Approximately 37% of beef cattle in Uruguay have been exposed to BHV-1 and 69% to BVD virus. Only 3% of beef herds in Uruguay regularly (typically, annually) use vaccines against either of these agents.

Comparison of Salmonella enterica serotype Infantis isolates from a veterinary teaching hospital.

AIMS: To compare Salmonella enterica serotype Infantis isolates obtained from patients or the environment of a veterinary teaching hospital over a period of 9 years following a nosocomial outbreak to determine whether isolates were epidemiologically related or represented unrelated introductions into the hospital environment. METHODS AND RESULTS: Fifty-six S. Infantis isolates were compared based on their phenotypic (antimicrobial drug [AMD] susceptibility pattern) and genotypic (pulsed-field gel electrophoresis [PFGE] pattern and presence of integrons) characteristics. Epidemiologically unrelated S. Infantis isolates clustered separately from all but two of the hospital isolates, and several isolates from different years and various sources were indistinguishable from each other in cluster analysis of two-enzyme PFGE results. A high percentage of isolates (80.3%) were resistant to at least one AMD, with 67.8% showing resistance to >5 AMD. The majority (74.1%) of isolates tested contained type 1 integrons. CONCLUSION: Results strongly suggest that there was nosocomial transmission of S. Infantis during the initial outbreak, and that contamination arising from this outbreak persisted across years despite rigorous hygiene and biosecurity precautions and may have led to subsequent nosocomial infections. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: Evidence of persistence and transmission of Salmonella clones across years, even in the face of rigorous preventive measures, has important implications for other facilities that have experienced outbreaks of Salmonella infections.

Prevalence and antimicrobial resistance of Campylobacter in US dairy cattle.

AIMS: To obtain an overview of the prevalence and antimicrobial resistance of Campylobacter in faeces of US dairy cows in 2002. METHODS AND RESULTS: Faeces from 1435 cows, representing 96 dairy operations in 21 US states, were collected for the culture of Campylobacter. A total of 735 Campylobacter strains were isolated (51.2% positive samples) with 94 operations positive (97.9%) for Campylobacter. From this collection, 532 isolates (473 Campylobacter jejuni and 59 Campylobacter coli) were randomly selected for susceptibility testing to eight antimicrobials: azithromycin, chloramphenicol, ciprofloxacin, clindamycin, erythromycin, gentamicin, nalidixic acid and tetracycline. The C. jejuni isolates exhibited resistance to tetracycline (47.4%), nalidixic acid (4.0%) and ciprofloxacin (2.5%), while the C. coli strains exhibited some resistance to all antimicrobials except chloramphenicol and ciprofloxacin. Only 3.6% of the C. jejuni isolates were resistant to two or more antimicrobials but 20.3% of the C. coli strains were multiresistant. CONCLUSIONS: On most operations, at least one cow was positive for Campylobacter and more than half of the cows sampled were shedding Campylobacter. The C. coli isolates had significantly higher levels of resistance to macrolides and to tetracycline compared with the C. jejuni strains, but were susceptible to ciprofloxacin. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: This study demonstrated a high prevalence of Campylobacter on US dairy operations; however, US dairy cattle have not been recognized as a major source of human infection compared with poultry. Campylobacter coli appears to develop antimicrobial resistance more readily than C. jejuni from the same environment.

Antimicrobial resistance patterns of Campylobacter from feedlot cattle*.

AIMS: This study examined 448 Campylobacter strains isolated in 1999 and 2000 from US feedlot cattle for resistance to 12 antimicrobials. METHODS AND RESULTS: Isolates were tested for antimicrobial susceptibility using the E-test method. Approximately 60% (n = 267) were resistant to one or more antimicrobials, and 19.6% (n = 88) were resistant to two or more antimicrobials. Of the Campylobacter jejuni isolates, 49.1% (n = 187) were resistant to tetracycline, 10.2% (n = 39) were resistant to nalidixic acid, 8.4% were resistant to trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole, and 1.8% (n = 7) were resistant to ciprofloxacin. Resistance to any of the other eight antimicrobials was 1.3% or less, but 14.4% (n = 55) were resistant to two or more antimicrobials. In the Campylobacter coli group, 65.7% (n = 44) were resistant to tetracycline, 52.2% (n = 35) were resistant to trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole, 22.4% (n = 15) were resistant to nalidixic acid, and 9.0% (n = 6) were resistant to ciprofloxacin. Resistance to any of the remaining eight antimicrobials was 3.0% or less, although 49.3% (n = 33) were resistant to two or more antimicrobials. CONCLUSIONS: Although antimicrobials are widely used in US feedlot cattle production, our results demonstrate generally low levels of resistance to a broad range of commonly used antimicrobials relative to other recent studies. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: Resistance data on Campylobacter isolated from this major US livestock commodity is lacking. This overview enhances current knowledge and provides a basis for further studies.

Characterization of Salmonella Typhimurium of animal origin obtained from the National Antimicrobial Resistance Monitoring System.

Salmonella Typhimurium remains one of the most common causes of salmonellosis in animals and humans in the United States. The emergence of multi-drug resistant Salmonella reduces the therapeutic options in cases of invasive infections, and has been shown to be associated with an increased burden of illness. In this study, 588 S. Typhimurium (including var. Copenhagen) isolates obtained from either animal diagnostic specimens (n = 199) or food animals after slaughter/processing (n = 389) were examined for antimicrobial susceptibility, presence of class-1 integrons, and characterized using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis and phage typing. Seventy-six percent (448/588) of isolates were resistant to at least one antimicrobial. Salmonella isolates displayed resistance most often to streptomycin (63%), tetracycline (61%), ampicillin (61%), and to a lesser extent, chloramphenicol (36%), ceftiofur (15%), gentamicin (9%), and nalidixic acid (4%), with more resistance observed among diagnostic isolates. Salmonella recovered from turkeys (n = 38) exhibited the highest rates of resistance, with 92% of isolates resistant to least one antimicrobial, and 58% resistant to > or =10 antimicrobials. Class 1 integrons were present in 51% of all isolates. Five integron associated resistance genes (aadA, aadB, pse-1, oxa-2 and dhfr) were identified. A total of 311 PFGE patterns were generated using XbaI, indicating a genetically diverse population. The largest PFGE cluster contained 146 isolates, including DT104 isolates obtained from all seven animal species. Results demonstrated a varied spectrum of antimicrobial resistance, including several multidrug resistant clonal groups, among S. Typhimurium and S. Typhimurium var. Copenhagen isolates recovered from both diagnostic and slaughter/processing samples.

Salmonella in dairy operations in the United States: prevalence and antimicrobial drug susceptibility.

Salmonella serotypes are important foodborne pathogens of humans that can be acquired through consumption of contaminated meat and dairy products. Salmonella infection also can be a significant animal health issue. As part of a national study of U.S. dairy operations conducted between March and September 2002, fecal samples were collected from representative cows in 97 dairy herds in 21 states and were cultured to determine the prevalence of Salmonella shedding. Salmonella was recovered from the feces of at least one cow in 30.9% of the herds. Overall, 7.3% of fecal samples were culture positive for Salmonella. The three most frequently recovered serotypes were Salmonella Meleagridis (24.1%), Salmonella Montevideo (11.9%), and Salmonella Typhimurium (9.9%). The susceptibilities of Salmonella isolates recovered were determined using a panel of 16 antimicrobial drugs. Salmonella isolates recovered from dairy cows had relatively little resistance to these antimicrobial agents; 83.0% of the isolates were susceptible to all antimicrobials tested. This study provides updated information on the prevalence and susceptibility patterns of Salmonella in dairy herds and on cow and herd characteristics. These data contribute to our understanding of the ecology of Salmonella in the dairy farm environment.

Bluetongue surveillance methods in the United States of America.

Historical surveillance for bluetongue virus (BTV) exposure in the United States of America (USA) has relied on periodical serological surveillance using samples collected from cattle at slaughter. Most of this surveillance has been focused on the north-eastern portion of the USA due to the lack of competent vectors of BTV in this region. For most of the states tested in this region, the prevalence of seropositive animals has been less than 2%. Recently, a study was conducted in north-central USA using sentinel cattle herds. Results of serological testing showed an increasing gradient of exposure from north to south. In addition, detection of Culicoides sonorensis showed a similar gradient with detection in the northern areas being relatively rare. The results of these studies indicate that cattle herds in the northern and north-eastern areas of the USA are likely to be free of BTV.

Prevalence and antimicrobial susceptibility of Salmonella spp. isolates from US cattle in feedlots in 1999 and 2000.

AIMS: Faecal samples from cattle in US feedlots were evaluated for the presence of Salmonella. When Salmonella isolates were recovered the antimicrobial resistance patterns were determined. METHODS AND RESULTS: Faecal samples were collected from pen floors in 73 feedlots in 12 states during the period from October 1999 to September 2000. Pens of cattle selected for sampling were those that had been in the feedlot for the shortest period of time, the longest period of time and a randomly selected pen from the remaining pens. Faecal samples were cultured for Salmonella spp. and all Salmonella isolates were categorized by serotype. The susceptibilities of all isolates were determined using a panel of 17 antimicrobials. Overall, 6.3% (654/10,417) of the samples cultured positive for Salmonella spp. and 22.2% (94/422) of pens and 50.7% (37/73) of feedlots had one or more positive samples. There was little difference in the proportion of positive samples from short-fed (6.1%, 212/3482), random (6.4%, 217/3400) and long-fed (6.4%, 224/3485) pens of cattle. One of two pens of cattle that could not be attributed to a pen type had a single positive sample (2.0%, 1/50). Samples collected during the period of April to June (6.8%, 209/3054) and July to September (11.4%, 286/2500) were more likely to be positive than those collected during October to December (4.0%, 73/1838) and January to March (2.8%, 86/3025). The most common serotypes of Salmonella were dissimilar from those that are typically seen in human illness and cattle illness. The majority of isolates (62.8%, 441/702) were sensitive to all of the antimicrobials tested. Resistance was most frequently observed to tetracycline (35.9%, 252/702) followed by streptomycin (11.1%, 78/702), ampicillin (10.4%, 73/702) and chloramphenicol (10.4%, 73/702). Multiple resistance (resistance to > or =2 antimicrobials) was observed for 11.7% (82/702) of the isolates. CONCLUSIONS: Salmonella was isolated at low frequency from faeces of feedlot cattle and the serotypes were not those commonly associated with human illness. In addition most of the Salmonella isolates were sensitive to all the antimicrobials tested. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: This study contributes to understanding the ecology of Salmonella in cattle feedlots and the prevalence of resistance among potential food-borne pathogens.

A comparison of dobutamine infusion to exercise as a cardiac stress test in healthy horses.

This study was done to determine whether administration of dobutamine would produce echocardiographic and electrocardiographic alterations comparable to those induced by treadmill exercise in healthy horses. Fourteen horses received maximal treadmill exercise and, separately, intravenous dobutamine infusion up to a maximum rate of 50 microg/kg/min. Ten of the 14 horses were euthanized, and the myocardial tissues were examined grossly and histopathologically. No significant differences were found in the chronotropic effects of dobutamine and exercise (P = .905). Dobutamine induced greater interventricular septal thickening during systole (dobutamine = 4.78 cm, exercise = 4.03 cm; P = .004). and greater left ventricular diameters during diastole (dobutamine = 9.73 cm, exercise = 9.26 cm; P = .037), than did exercise treatment. Horses exhibited transient signs of sweating and restlessness during infusion of moderate to maximum doses of dobutamine. Ventricular ectopy seen in 11 of 14 horses was attributed to the arrhythmogenic properties of dobutamine, as well as to increased vagal tone present at low dobutamine doses. Myocardial lesions characteristic of catecholamine myotoxicity were present in 2 of the 10 horses examined. Although dobutamine induces chronotropic and inotropic changes similar to those induced by exercise, the use of high-dose dobutamine as a cardiac stressor in horses cannot be advocated because of potential development of arrhythmias or myotoxicity.