Differences in enteric pathogens and intestinal microbiota between diarrheic weaned piglets and healthy penmates.

Postweaning diarrhea (PWD) is a multifactorial disease caused by different aetiological agents, like viruses or bacteria and where the role of the microbiota remains unclear. The aim of this study was to assess differences between healthy and diarrheic weaned pigs concerning the prevalence of pathogens and changes in the intestinal microbiota. Eighteen farms with PWD were selected and 277 fecal samples were collected (152 diarrheic vs 125 healthy). Presence of Rotavirus A (RVA), B (RVB), C (RVC) and Porcine Epidemic Diarrhea Virus (PEDV), virulence factors of Escherichia coli and Clostridioides difficile were analyzed by PCR. Finally, the microbiota composition was also study by 16 S rRNA sequencing on 148 samples (102 diarrheic vs 46 healthy). RVA (53.95 % vs 36 %, p=0.04) and RVB (49.67 % vs 28.8 %, p<0.001) were more frequent in diarrheic animals. Furthermore, RVA viral load was higher in diseased animals. VT2 toxin was significantly associated with diarrhea, whereas other virulence factors were not. Presence of C. difficile and PEDV was almost negligible. Regarding microbiota changes, Fusobacteriota phylum was more frequent in diarrheic samples and Ruminococcaceae family in healthy penmates. During the first week postweaning, Enterobacteriace and Campylobacteria were enriched in animals presenting diarrhea. Furthermore, Lactobacillus was detected in those individuals with no RVA infection. In conclusion, RVA seems to play a primary role in PWD. Classic E. coli virulence factors were not associated with diarrhea, indicating the need for revising their implication in disease. Moreover, Lactobacillus was found frequently in animals negative for RVA, suggesting some protective effect.

Gut microbiome and resistome characterization of pigs treated with commonly used post-weaning diarrhea treatments.

BACKGROUND: The global burden of antimicrobial resistance demands additional measures to ensure the sustainable and conscious use of antimicrobials. For the swine industry, the post-weaning period is critical and for many years, antimicrobials have been the most effective strategy to control and treat post-weaning related infections. Among them, post-weaning diarrhea causes vast economic losses, as it severely compromises piglets' health and growth performance. In this study, 210 piglets were transferred from a farm with recurrent cases of post-weaning diarrhea to an experimental farm and divided into six different treatment groups to determine the effect of the different treatments on the growth performance and survival, the microbiome, and the resistome in a cross-sectional and longitudinal study. The different treatments included antimicrobials trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole, colistin, and gentamicin, an oral commercial vaccine, a control with water acidification, and an untreated control. An extra group remained at the farm of origin following the implemented amoxicillin routine treatment. A total of 280 fecal samples from pigs at four different sampling times were selected for metagenomics: before weaning-treatment at the farm of origin, and three days, two weeks, and four weeks post-treatment. RESULTS: The control group with water acidification showed a reduced death risk in the survival analyses and non-significant differences in average daily weight gain in comparison to the antibiotic-treated groups. However, the growth-promoting effect among antibiotic-treated groups was demonstrated when comparing against the untreated control group at the experimental farm. After four weeks of treatment, diversity indexes revealed significantly decreased diversity for the untreated control and the group that remained at the farm of origin treated with amoxicillin. For this last group, impaired microbial diversity could be related to the continuous amoxicillin treatment carried out at the farm. Analysis of the resistome showed that both gentamicin and amoxicillin treatments significantly contributed to the emergence of resistance, while trimethoprim/sulphonamide and colistin did not, suggesting that different treatments contribute differently to the emergence of resistance. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, this shotgun longitudinal metagenomics analysis demonstrates that non-antibiotic alternatives, such as water acidification, can contribute to reducing the emergence of antimicrobial resistance without compromising pig growth performance and gut microbiome.

Morbidity and Prognostic Factors Associated with Wild Hedgehogs Admitted to a Wildlife Rehabilitation Center in Catalonia (NE Spain) from 1995 to 2020.

Wildlife rehabilitation centers (WRC) play a crucial role in the collection of data and the monitoring of hedgehog populations. The main objective of this study was to identify the morbidity and prognostic factors associated with the mortality of wild hedgehogs admitted at a WRC in Catalonia. A total number of 3397 hedgehogs admitted from 1995 to 2020 were studied. The principal cause of admission was orphaned/young category (41%) followed by misplacement (19%), natural disease (17%), and trauma (14%). The best outcomes for release were for misplacement (93.6%), orphaned/young (72.3%), and other causes (77.6%), and the lowest proportion of released animals were found for natural disease (41.4%) and trauma (44.7%) categories. The most common macroscopic findings were the respiratory and digestive lesions. Internal parasites were also prevalent in 61% of the animals but with no association with a higher mortality. In the multivariate analyses, the prognostic indicators related with the mortality outcome were the presence of systemic (OR = 3.6, CI 95%: 2.8-4.6) and neurological (OR = 4.3, CI 95%: 2.9-6.4) signs. Morbidity and prognostic factors in wildlife rehabilitation are essential for providing effective care, making informed decisions, optimizing resources, and improving rehabilitation success rates.

Study of Canine Distemper Virus Presence in Catalonia's Wild Carnivores through H Gene Amplification and Sequencing.

Canine distemper virus (CDV) is recognised worldwide as an important pathogen in both domestic and wild carnivores. Few data are available on its impact and spread on the wildlife/wildlife-domestic animal-environment interface. This study, aimed at developing a conservation-oriented control strategy, analysed 89 sick or deceased animals from 2019 to 2023 at the Wildlife Rehabilitation Centre in Torreferrussa. RT-PCR and sequencing of the partial H gene were used to detect and analyse CDV in tissues. The total positive percentage was 20.22% (18/89), comprising 13 red foxes (44.8%), 4 European badgers (28.6%), and 1 American mink (4.5%), while 24 Eurasian otters tested negative. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that all of the CDV strains belong to the European lineage. Geographically distant individuals and different species shared the same viral strain, suggesting a strong capacity of CDV for interspecies and long-distance transmission. This calls for further research, particularly focusing on potential impacts of CDV on endangered carnivores.

Characterization of Antimicrobial Resistance in Escherichia coli Isolated from Diarrheic and Healthy Weaned Pigs in Catalonia.

Postweaning diarrhea (PWD) is a multifactorial concern in the swine industry that leads to high antibiotic consumption, usually without testing susceptibility, increasing the risk of the selection of Escherichia coli-resistant strains. In this study, 251 E. coli strains isolated from fecal samples of diarrheic (n = 148) and apparently healthy piglets (n = 103) in farms in Catalonia were tested against their susceptibility to fourteen different antimicrobials. The phenotypic antimicrobial resistance (AMR) testing revealed high levels of AMR, with 41.4% of the isolates presenting a multidrug-resistant (MDR) profile. More specifically, resistance to class D (prudence) antimicrobials such as erythromycin (99.6%), amoxicillin (95.2%), streptomycin (91.6%), tetracycline (88.8%), lincospectin (64.5%), and sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim (60%) was very high, as well as to class C (caution) antimicrobials such as florfenicol (45%). A special concern was observed for antimicrobial category B (restrict), like quinolones and colistin, that both presented a high rate of resistance. Colistin use was substantially reduced in Spain, but resistance is still present in weaned pigs, presenting a MIC90 of 4 µg/mL. This suggests that reducing antibiotic use is not enough to eliminate this AMR. Finally, it was found that piglets suffering diarrhea were more commonly carriers of MDR strains than the healthy ones (49.3% vs. 35%, p = 0.031). Therefore, given the high rates of resistance to the most commonly used antimicrobials, especially in diseased pigs, a new non-antibiotic-based approach should be implemented for the management of PWD.

Current Situation of Bacterial Infections and Antimicrobial Resistance Profiles in Pet Rabbits in Spain.

Research on antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in pet rabbits is very scarce. The aim of this study was to provide an overview of the current state of AMR in rabbits attended to in veterinary clinics distributed in Spain. Records of 3596 microbiological results of clinical cases submitted from 2010 to 2021 were analyzed. Staphylococcus spp. (15.8%), Pseudomonas spp. (12.7%), Pasteurella spp. (10%), Bordetella spp. (9.6%) and Streptococcus spp. (6.8%) were the most frequently diagnosed agents. Enterobacteriaceae, principally Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Enterobacter cloacae, accounted for about 18% of the cases and showed the highest proportion of multi-drug resistance (MDR) isolates, with 48%, 57.5% and 36% of MDR, respectively. Regarding the antimicrobial susceptibility testing for a number of antimicrobial categories/families, the largest proportion of isolates showing resistance to a median of five antimicrobial categories was observed in P. aeruginosa, Stenotrophomonas maltophilia and Burkolderia spp. In contrast, infections caused by Staphylococcus, Streptococcus spp. and Pasteurella multocida were highly sensitive to conventional antimicrobials authorized for veterinary use (categories D and C). The emergence of AMR major nosocomial opportunistic pathogens such as P. aeruginosa, S. maltophilia and K. pneumoniae in pet rabbits can represent a serious public health challenge. Consequently, collaboration between veterinarians and human health professionals is crucial in the fight against antimicrobial resistance, to optimize, rationalize and prudently use antimicrobial therapies in domestic animals and humans.

Antimicrobial Resistance in Bacteria Isolated from Exotic Pets: The Situation in the Iberian Peninsula.

Literature related to antimicrobial resistant (AMR) bacteria in exotic pets is minimal, being essential to report objective data on this topic, which represents a therapeutic challenge for veterinary medicine and public health. Between 2016 and 2020, laboratory records of 3156 exotic pet specimens' microbiological diagnoses and antibiotic susceptibility testing (AST) results were examined. The samples were classified into three animal classes: birds (n = 412), mammalia (n = 2399), and reptilian (n = 345). The most prevalent bacteria in birds and mammals were Staphylococcus spp. (15% and 16%), while in reptiles they were Pseudomonas spp. (23%). Pseudomonas was the genus with the highest levels of AMR in all animal groups, followed by Enterococcus spp. By contrast, Gram-positive cocci and Pasteurella spp. were the most sensitive bacteria. Moreover, in reptiles, Stenotrophomonas spp., Morganella spp., and Acinetobacter spp. presented high levels of AMR. Multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria were isolates from reptiles (21%), birds (17%), and mammals (15%). The Enterobacterales had the highest MDR levels: S. marcescens (94.4%), C. freundii (50%), M. morganii (47.4%), K. pneumoniae (46.6%), E. cloacae (44%), and E. coli (38.3%). The prevalence of MDR P. aeruginosa strains was 8%, detecting one isolate with an XDR profile. Regarding antimicrobial use, many antibiotics described as critically important for human use had significant AMR prevalence in bacteria isolated from exotic pets. Under the One-Health approach, these results are alarming and of public health concern since potential transmission of AMR bacteria and genes can occur from exotic pets to their owners in both senses. For this reason, the collaboration between veterinarians and public health professionals is crucial.

Occurrence of multidrug resistant Gram-negative bacteria and resistance genes in semi-aquatic wildlife - Trachemys scripta, Neovison vison and Lutra lutra - as sentinels of environmental health.

Emergence of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in bacterial pathogens has been recognized as a major public health concern worldwide. In the present study, antimicrobial resistant Gram-negative bacteria (AMRGNB) and AMR genes were assessed in semi-aquatic wild animals from a highly populated and intensive farming region of Spain, Catalonia. Cloacal/rectal swab samples were collected from 241 animals coming from invasive species Trachemys scripta (n = 91) and Neovison vison (n = 131), and endangered-protected species Lutra lutra (n = 19). Accordingly, 133 (55.2%) isolates were identified as AMRGNB. Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas fluorescens were among the bacteria most frequently isolated in all animal species, but other nosocomial agents such as Klebsiella pneumoniae, Salmonella spp. or Citrobacter freundii, were also prevalent. The phenotypic susceptibility testing showed the highest resistance to ß-lactams (91%). Molecular analysis showed 25.3% of turtles (15.4% ESBL/Ampc genes), 21% of Eurasian otters (10.5% ESBL/Ampc genes) and 14.5% of American minks (8.4% ESBL/Ampc genes) were positive to AMR genes. The genotyping frequency was tetM (20.6%), blaCMY-2 (13%), ermB (6.1%), blaCMY-1 (4.6%), blaCTX-M-15 (3.1%) and mcr-4 (0.8%). Turtles had a larger prevalence of AMRGNB and AMR genes than mustelids, but American mink carried mcr-4 colistin-resistance gene. Moreover, cluster analysis of AMR gene distribution revealed that an ESBL/AmpC cluster in a highly populated area comprising big metropolitan regions, and another tetM/emrB cluster in an expended area with highly intensive livestock production. Although the mcr-4 positive case was not included in those clusters, that case was found in a county with a high pig farm density. In conclusion, semi-aquatic wild animals are a good sentinel for environmental contamination with AMRGNB and AMR genes. Therefore, One Health Approach is urgently needed in highly populated regions, and with intensive livestock production like Catalonia.

Extended-Spectrum ß-Lactam Resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae and Escherichia coli in Wild European Hedgehogs (Erinaceus europeus) Living in Populated Areas.

Wildlife has been suggested to be a good sentinel of environmental health because of its close interaction with human populations, domestic animals, and natural ecosystems. The alarming emergence of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in human and veterinary medicine has activated/triggered the awareness of monitoring the levels of AMR pollution in wildlife. European hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) are common wild species habiting urban areas in Europe. However, there are few studies conducted in hedgehogs as reservoirs of AMR bacteria or genes. The aim of this study was to assess the occurrence and distribution of ESBL, AmpC, and carbapenem-resistant enterobacteria and AMR genes in wild European hedgehogs in Catalonia, a densely populated region of NE Spain. A total of 115 hedgehogs admitted at the Wildlife Rehabilitation Center of Torreferrussa were studied. To our knowledge, this is the first description of ß-lactam resistant enterobacteria in wild hedgehogs. Interestingly, 36.8% (42/114) of the animals were detected as carriers of ß-lactamase/carbapenemase resistance genes. Klebsiella spp. (59.6%), and specifically K. pneumoniae (84.6%), were the bacteria with the highest proportion of resistance genes, followed by E. coli (34.6%) and C. freundii (5.8%). The most frequently detected genetic variants were blaCTX-M-15 (19.3%), blaSHV-28 (10.5%), blaCMY-1 (9.7%), blaCMY-2 (8.8%), and blaOXA-48 (1.7%). In addition, 52% (27/52) of the isolates presented a multidrug resistance (MDR) phenotype and 31% had an extended drug resistance (XDR) profile. No clustering of animals with AMR genes within the study region was shown in the spatial analysis, nor differences in the proportion of positive animals among regions, were detected. The results of this study suggest that wild European hedgehogs could be good sentinels of AMR environmental pollution, especially in areas with a high human population density, because they either inhabit and/or feed in an anthropogenic environment. In conclusion, it is crucial to raise awareness of the strong interconnection between habitats and compartments, and therefore this implies that AMR issues must be tackled under the One Health approach.

Detection of Beta-Lactam-Resistant Escherichia coli and Toxigenic Clostridioides difficile Strains in Wild Boars Foraging in an Anthropization Gradient.

Disease transmission among wild boars, domestic animals and humans is a public health concern, especially in areas with high wild boar densities. In this study, fecal samples of wild boars (n = 200) from different locations of the Metropolitan Area of Barcelona were analyzed by PCR to explore the frequency of ß-lactamases and extended cephalosporin and carbapenem resistance genes (ESBLs) in Escherichia coli strains and the presence of toxigenic Clostridioides difficile. The prevalence of genes conferring resistance to ß-lactam antimicrobials was 8.0% (16/200): blaCMY-2 (3.0%), blaTEM-1b (2.5%), blaCTX-M-14 (1.0%), blaSHV-28 (1.0%), blaCTX-M-15 (0.5%) and blaCMY-1 (0.5%). Clostridioides difficile TcdA+ was detected in two wild boars (1.0%), which is the first report of this pathogen in wild boars in Spain. Moreover, the wild boars foraging in urban and peri-urban locations were more exposed to AMRB sources than the wild boars dwelling in natural environments. In conclusion, the detection of E. coli carrying ESBL/AmpC genes and toxigenic C. difficile in wild boars foraging in urban areas reinforces the value of this game species as a sentinel of environmental AMRB sources. In addition, these wild boars can be a public and environmental health concern by disseminating AMRB and other zoonotic agents. Although this study provides the first hints of the potential anthropogenic sources of AMR, further efforts should be conducted to identify and control them.

Antimicrobial susceptibility of bacterial isolates from urinary tract infections in companion animals in Spain.

BACKGROUND: The increasing emergence of multidrug-resistant bacteria, causing urinary tract infections (UTI) in dogs and cats, represents a great therapeutic challenge and a public health concern. METHODS: Laboratory records of 4943 urinary microbiological diagnosis results and antimicrobial resistance profiles of suspected UTI cases in dogs and cats were analysed from 2016 to 2018 in Spain. RESULTS: This study showed a higher percentage of positive microbiological diagnoses in dogs (42%, 1368/3270) than in cats (27%, 457/1673). Although Escherichia coli was the most frequently isolated bacterium, the frequency of antimicrobial susceptibility of E. coli isolates was lower compared to other bacterial species like Enterococcus spp., Staphylococcus spp., Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterobacter (E. cloacae), and Proteus mirabilis. The antimicrobial susceptibility testing of Gram-positive cocci showed higher levels of resistance in cats to common beta-lactams used for the treatment of complicated UTIs, as well as to fluoroquinolones, aminoglycosides, and carbapenems. Moreover, enterobacteria (E. coli, K. pneumoniae, and P. mirabilis) from cats presented high resistance frequencies to beta-lactams, including third- and fourth-generation cephalosporins and fluoroquinolones. CONCLUSION: This study updates data on the current antimicrobial resistance in UTI bacteria from companion animals in Spain, which may help to guide clinicians for the appropriate use of antimicrobials.

A pilot RNA-seq study in 40 pietrain ejaculates to characterize the porcine sperm microbiome.

The microbiome plays a key role in homeostasis and health and it has been also linked to fertility and semen quality in several animal species including swine. Despite the more than likely importance of sperm bacteria on the boar's reproductive ability and the dissemination of pathogens and antimicrobial resistance genes, the high throughput characterization of the swine sperm microbiome remains scarce. We carried RNA-seq on 40 ejaculates each from a different Pietrain boar and found that a proportion of the sequencing reads did not map to the Sus scrofa genome. The current study aimed at using these reads not belonging to pig to carry a pilot study to profile the boar sperm bacterial population and its relation with 7 semen quality traits. We found that the boar sperm contains a broad population of bacteria. The most abundant phyla were Proteobacteria (39.1%), Firmicutes (27.5%), Actinobacteria (14.9%) and Bacteroidetes (5.7%). The predominant species contaminated sperm after ejaculation from soil, faeces and water sources (Bacillus megaterium, Brachybacterium faecium, Bacillus coagulans). Some potential pathogens were also found but at relatively low levels (Escherichia coli, Clostridioides difficile, Clostridium perfringens, Clostridium botulinum and Mycobacterium tuberculosis). We also identified 3 potential antibiotic resistant genes from E. coli against chloramphenicol, Neisseria meningitidis against spectinomycin and Staphylococcus aureus against linezolid. None of these genes were highly abundant. Finally, we classified the ejaculates into categories according to their bacterial features and semen quality parameters and identified two categories that significantly differed for 5 semen quality traits and 13 bacterial features including the genera Acinetobacter, Stenotrophomonas and Rhodobacter. Our results show that boar semen contains a bacterial community, including potential pathogens and putative antibiotic resistance genes, and that these bacteria may affect its reproductive performance.

Antimicrobial Resistance Profiles and Characterization of Escherichia coli Strains from Cases of Neonatal Diarrhea in Spanish Pig Farms.

Escherichia coli is considered one of the most common agents associated with neonatal diarrhea in piglets. The aim of this work was to characterize the pathogenic and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) profiles of 122 E. coli strains isolated from pigs suffering diarrhea (n = 94) and pigs without diarrhea (n = 28) of 24 farms in Spain. Virulence factors, toxins and AMR (ESBL and colistin) genes and AMR phenotypes of E. coli isolates were analyzed. Low prevalence of pathogenic E. coli strains (26%) was found in both groups. However, ETEC and VTEC strains were more frequently isolated from diarrheic piglets. Irrespectively of diarrhea occurrence, 97.5% of the strains showed a multidrug-resistance (MDR) profile to aminopenicillins, sulfonamides and tetracyclines. It was found that 22% of E. coli was CTX-M+, with CTX-M-14 being the principal allelic variant. Remarkably, 81.5% of CTX-M+ strains were isolated from diarrheic animals and presented an extended MDR profile to aminopenicillins, quinolones and aminoglycosides. Finally, low frequencies of colistin resistance genes mcr-1 (4/122) and mcr-4 (1/122) were found. MDR E. coli strains are circulating in pig farms of Spain, representing a serious threat to animal and public health. More appropriate diagnostic approaches (genetic and AMR phenotypic analysis) should be implemented in animal health to optimize antibiotic treatments.

Effects of copper and zinc sources and inclusion levels of copper on weanling pig performance and intestinal microbiota.

A 42-d experiment was conducted to evaluate the effect of Cu and Zn source and Cu level on pig performance, mineral status, bacterial modulation, and the presence of antimicrobial-resistant genes in isolates of Enterococcus spp. At weaning, 528 pigs (5.9 ± 0.50 kg) were allotted to 48 pens of a randomized complete block design in a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement with two Cu and Zn sources (SF: sulfate and HCl: hydroxychloride) and two Cu levels (15 and 160 mg/kg). As a challenge, the pigs were reared in dirty pens used by a previous commercial batch. Two-phase diets were offered: the pre-starter (PS) phase from day 1 to 14 and the starter phase (ST) from day 14 to 42. At days 14 and 42, pigs were individually weighed and blood samples from one pig per pen were taken. At the end of the experiment, one pig per pen was euthanized to collect the samples. Feeding high levels of Cu increased body weight (BW) from 16.6 to 17.7 kg (P < 0.001). Furthermore, average daily gain, gain to feed (G:F) ratio, average daily feed intake (ADFI), and mineral status were enhanced with Cu at 160 mg/kg (P < 0.05) compared with Cu at 15 mg/kg. There was no effect of the interaction between source × level on any of the growth performance responses except for ADFI (P = 0.004) and G:F (P = 0.029) at the end of the ST period and for G:F (P = 0.006) for entire nursery period (day 0 to 42). At the end of the ST period, pigs fed Cu at 160 mg/kg as HCl had not only higher ADFI but also lower G:F than those fed Cu as SF at 160 mg/kg. Meanwhile, for the entire nursery period, G:F did not differ between pigs fed Cu at 160 mg/kg as HCl or SF. In colonic digesta, the relative abundance of Streptococcus, Enterobacter, Escherichia, among others, decreased (P-adjust < 0.05), while Lachnospira and Roseburia tended (P-adjust < 0.10) to increase in pigs fed Cu at 160 mg/kg as HCl compared with those fed Cu SF at 160 mg/kg. An increase (P-adjust < 0.05) in Methanosphaera and Roseburia was observed in pigs fed Cu at 160 mg/kg. From colon digesta, Enterococcus spp. was isolated in 40 samples, being E. faecalis the most dominating (65%) regardless of the experimental diet. Genes of ermB (7.5%) and tetM (5%) were identified. No genes for Cu (tcrB) or vancomycin (vanA, vanB, vanC1, and vanC2) were detected. In conclusion, European Union permissible levels of Cu (160 mg/kg), of both sources, were able to increase performance, mineral status, and bacterial modulation compared with nutritional level. Different effects on growth performance, mineral tissue content, and microbial modulation were observed between Cu and Zn sources.

Antimicrobial resistance profile and prevalence of extended-spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBL), AmpC beta-lactamases and colistin resistance (mcr) genes in Escherichia coli from swine between 1999 and 2018.

The frequent usage of antibiotics in livestock has led to the spread of resistant bacteria within animals and their products, with a global warning in public health and veterinarians to monitor such resistances. This study aimed to determine antibiotic resistance patterns and genes in pig farms from Spain during the last twenty years. Susceptibility to six antibiotics commonly used in pig production was tested by qualitative (disk diffusion) and quantitative (minimum inhibitory concentration, MIC) methods in 200 strains of Escherichia coli which had been isolated between 1999 and 2018 from clinical cases of diarrhoea in neonatal and post-weaned piglets. Results showed resistance around 100% for amoxicillin and tetracycline since 1999, and a progressive increase in ceftiofur resistance throughout the studied period. For colistin, it was detected a resistance peak (17.5% of the strains) in the 2011-2014 period. Concerning gentamicin, 11 of 30 strains with intermediate susceptibility by the disk diffusion method were resistant by MIC. Besides, the most frequent antimicrobial resistance genes were the extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) bla CTX-M (13.5% of strains, being CTX-M-14, CTX-M-1 and CTX-M-32 the most prevalent genomes, followed by CTX-M-27, CTX-M-9 and CTX-M-3), AmpC-type beta-lactamase (AmpC) bla CMY-2 (3%) and colistin resistance genes mcr-4 (13%), mcr-1 (7%) and in less proportion mcr-5 (3%). Interestingly, these mcr genes were already detected in strains isolated in 2000, more than a decade before their first description. However, poor concordance between the genotypic mcr profile and the phenotypical testing by MIC was found in this study. These results indicate that although being a current concern, resistance genes and therefore antimicrobial resistant phenotypes were already present in pig farms at the beginning of the century.

Antimicrobial Resistance in Bacteria Isolated From Cats and Dogs From the Iberian Peninsula.

Pet animals are assumed to be potential reservoirs in transferring antimicrobial resistance (AMR) to humans due to the extensively applied broad-spectrum antimicrobial agents and their close contact with humans. In this study, microbiological data and antimicrobial susceptibility results of dog (n = 5,086) and cat (n = 789) clinical samples from a private Laboratory of Diagnosis in Barcelona were analyzed. Samples came from different counties of the Iberian Peninsula during 2016-2018. In dogs, clinical samples were most commonly from otitis, and in cats from wounds, respiratory tract infections and conjunctivitis. In both pet groups, Staphylococcus spp. (31% in dogs vs 30% in cats), Streptococcus spp. (19% vs 17%), Pseudomonas spp. (16% vs 10%), Escherichia coli (8% vs 5.6%), and Enterococcus spp. (5.5% vs 6.8%) were shown as the most predominant bacteria. However, higher frequencies of P. aeruginosa, P. canis, and S. pseudintermedius were found in dogs, while S. aureus and P. multocida were more prevalent in cats. The antimicrobial susceptibility testing demonstrated that Enterococcus spp. and Pseudomonas spp. presented the highest levels of AMR in both dogs and cats. Within the Enterobacteriaceae, E. coli showed low levels of AMR compared to Klebsiella, Proteus, or Enterobacter spp. Respiratory tract infections caused by K. pneumoniae presented higher AMR in cats. By contrast, Pasteurella isolates from the respiratory tract were highly sensitive to all the antimicrobials in cats and dogs. Data from this study could be used to guide empirical antimicrobial selection in companion animal veterinary practices in the Iberian Peninsula.

High levels of unreported intraspecific diversity among RNA viruses in faeces of neonatal piglets with diarrhoea.

BACKGROUND: Diarrhoea is a major cause of death in neonate pigs and most of the viruses that cause it are RNA viruses. Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) deeply characterize the genetic diversity among rapidly mutating virus populations at the interspecific as well as the intraspecific level. The diversity of RNA viruses present in faeces of neonatal piglets suffering from diarrhoea in 47 farms, plus 4 samples from non-diarrhoeic piglets has been evaluated by NGS. Samples were selected among the cases submitted to the Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratories of Infectious Diseases of the Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (Barcelona, Spain) and Universidad de León (León, Spain). RESULTS: The analyses identified the presence of 12 virus species corresponding to 8 genera of RNA viruses. Most samples were co-infected by several viruses. Kobuvirus and Rotavirus were more commonly reported, with Sapovirus, Astrovirus 3, 4 and 5, Enterovirus G, Porcine epidemic diarrhoea virus, Pasivirus and Posavirus being less frequently detected. Most sequences showed a low identity with the sequences deposited in GenBank, allowing us to propose several new VP4 and VP7 genotypes for Rotavirus B and Rotavirus C. CONCLUSIONS: Among the cases analysed, Rotaviruses were the main aetiological agents of diarrhoea in neonate pigs. Besides, in a small number of cases Kobuvirus and Sapovirus may also have an aetiological role. Even most animals were co-infected in early life, the association with enteric disease among the other examined viruses was unclear. The NGS method applied successfully characterized the RNA virome present in faeces and detected a high level of unreported intraspecific diversity.

Prevalence of enteric pathogens in diarrheic and non-diarrheic samples from pig farms with neonatal diarrhea in the North East of Spain.

Diarrhea is one of the major causes of neonatal mortality in pigs. In the present study, 31 pig farms with outbreaks of neonatal diarrhea were investigated in Catalonia (NE Spain) from February 2017 until June 2018. Two hundred and fifteen diarrheic samples from 1 to 7 days old piglets were tested for a panel of enteric pathogens. In 19 of the studied farms additional fecal samples from apparently healthy pen-mates were collected and tested for the same panel of infectious agents. Samples were bacteriologically cultured and tested by PCR for E. coli virulence factors genes, C. perfringens types A and C toxins (Cpα, Cpß, Cpß2) and C. difficile toxins (TcdA, TcdB). Moreover, Rotavirus A (RVA), Rotavirus B (RVB), Rotavirus C (RVC), porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) and transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV) were also determined by RT-qPCR. More than one pathogen could be detected in all of the outbreaks. Nevertheless, RVA was the only agent that could be statistically correlated with the outcome of diarrhea. For the other viruses and bacteria analyzed significant differences between the diseased pigs and the controls were not found. In spite of this, the individual analysis of each of the studied farms indicated that other agents such as RVB, RVC, toxigenic C. difficile or pathogenic E. coli could play a relevant role in the outbreak of diarrhea. In conclusion, the large diversity of agent combinations and disease situations detected in neonatal diarrhea outbreaks of this study stand for a more personalized diagnosis and management advice at a farm level.

High prevalence and diversity of extended-spectrum ß-lactamase and emergence of OXA-48 producing Enterobacterales in wildlife in Catalonia.

Most of the studies focused on antimicrobial resistance (AMR) performed in wildlife describe Escherichia coli as the principal indicator of the selective pressure. In the present study, several species of Enterobacterales with a large panel of cephalosporin resistant (CR) genes have been isolated from wildlife in Catalonia. A total of 307 wild animals were examined to determine the prevalence of CR enterobacteria, AMR phenotypes and the presence of common carbapenem and CR genes. The overall prevalence of CR-phenotype was 13% (40/307): 17.3% in wild mammals (18/104) and 11.5% in wild birds (22/191) (p<0.01). Hedgehogs showed the highest prevalence (13.5% of 104) of the mammal specimens, and raptors the highest in bird specimen (7.3% of 191). Although CR E. coli was the most frequently isolated (45%), other CR- Enterobacterales like Klebsiella pneumoniae (20%), Citrobacter freundii (15%), Enterobacter cloacae (5%), Proteus mirabilis (5%), Providencia spp (5%) and Serratia marcescens (2.5%) were also isolated. A high diversity of CR genes was identified among the isolates, with 50% yielding blaCMY-2, 23% blaSHV-12, 20% blaCMY-1 and 18% blaCTX-M-15. Additionally, resistance to carbapenems associated to OXA-48 gene was found. Most of the CR isolates, principally K. pneumoniae and C. freundii, were multi-resistant with co-resistance to fluoroquinolones, tetracycline, sulphonamides and aminoglycosides. This study reports high prevalence of Enterobacterales harbouring a variety of CR genes and OXA-48 mediated-carbapenem resistance, all of them frequently associated to nosocomial human infections, for the first time in wild mammals and wild birds. Implementation of control measures to reduce the impact of anthropogenic pressure in the environment is urgently needed.

Full-genome characterization by deep sequencing of rotavirus A isolates from outbreaks of neonatal diarrhoea in pigs in Spain.

Since early 2017, in Spain there was an apparent increase in reports on rotavirus involvement in neonatal diarrhoea outbreaks, affecting also adult sows. In this study, 16 unrelated outbreaks of diarrhoea in suckling pigs and sows, where rotavirus A was the only pathogen detected, were investigated. Deep-sequencing was performed on total RNA from twenty-four positive faecal samples. Genotyping, phylogenetic and bayesian analyses showed that all isolates had a common ancestor of porcine, or human porcine-like, origin. The new strain was introduced in the population shortly before the onset of the outbreaks. Besides, a high diversification of the VP7 and VP4 genes occurred in a short time. Isolates presented a high number of amino acid changes in the neutralizing epitopes compared to vaccine sequences. The present report illustrates how a new rotavirus A strain may disseminate rapidly and the extremely high diversification that this pathogen may undergo in a short period.