Measuring Histone Deacetylase Inhibition in the Brain.

Histone deacetylases (HDACs) represent a family of enzymes that are targets for epigenetic modulation of genomic activity and may be beneficial in the treatment of many diseases, including cancer and central nervous system disorders. In animal models, HDAC inhibitors have neuroprotective, antiepileptogenic, and antidepressant effects. Assaying HDAC activity provides a robust method for identifying HDAC inhibitors and for assessing their effects under various physiological conditions or after pathological insults. In this unit, a simple and sensitive assay for measuring HDAC activity is described. HDAC activity in tissue lysates can be assessed fluorometrically using a Boc-Lys(Ac) HDAC activity kit. HDACs catalyze the deacetylation of the substrate Boc-Lys(Ac)-AMC. Addition of a trypsin-containing developer converts the deacetylated product to a quantifiable fluorophore that can be used both as a screening method to identify putative HDAC inhibitors and to assess the effects of these inhibitors on tissue and animal epigenetic-modulated phenotypes. © 2018 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

A functional pseudogene, NMRAL2P, is regulated by Nrf2 and serves as a coactivator of NQO1 in sulforaphane-treated colon cancer cells.

SCOPE: The anticancer agent sulforaphane (SFN) acts via multiple mechanisms to modulate gene expression, including the induction of nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 (Nrf2)-dependent signaling and the inhibition of histone deacetylase activity. Transcriptomics studies were performed in SFN-treated human colon cancer cells and in nontransformed colonic epithelial cells in order to pursue new mechanistic leads. METHODS AND RESULTS: RNA-sequencing corroborated the expected changes in cancer-related pathways after SFN treatment. In addition to NAD(P)H quinone dehydrogenase 1 (NQO1) and other well-known Nrf2-dependent targets, SFN strongly induced the expression of Loc344887. This noncoding RNA was confirmed as a novel functional pseudogene for NmrA-like redox sensor 1, and was given the name NmrA-like redox sensor 2 pseudogene (NMRAL2P). Chromatin immunoprecipitation experiments corroborated the presence of Nrf2 interactions on the NMRAL2P genomic region, and interestingly, NMRAL2P also served as a coregulator of NQO1 in human colon cancer cells. Silencing of NMRAL2P via CRISPR/Cas9 genome-editing protected against SFN-mediated inhibition of cancer cell growth, colony formation, and migration. CONCLUSION: NMRAL2P is the first functional pseudogene to be identified both as a direct transcriptional target of Nrf2, and as a downstream regulator of Nrf2-dependent NQO1 induction. Further studies are warranted on NMRAL2P-Nrf2 crosstalk and the associated mechanisms of gene regulation.

Epigenetic inactivation of endothelin-2 and endothelin-3 in colon cancer.

Endothelin-1 (ET-1) and its receptors are overexpressed in human cancers, but much less is known about the roles of ET-2 and ET-3 in cancer etiology. We sought to examine human and rat colon tumors for dysregulation of ET-2 and ET-3 expression and determine the underlying mechanisms. Human primary colon cancers and carcinogen-induced rat colon tumors were subjected to real-time RT-PCR, immunoblotting and immunohistochemistry; EDN2 and EDN3 genes were examined by methylation-specific PCR, bisulfite sequencing and pyrosequencing; and forced expression of ET-2 and ET-3 was conducted in human colon cancer cells followed by real-time cell migration and invasion assays. Rat and human colon tumors had markedly reduced expression of ET-2 and ET-3 mRNA and protein compared with matched controls. Mechanistic studies revealed hypermethylation of EDN2 and EDN3 genes in human primary colon cancers and in a panel of human colon cancer cell lines. Forced expression of ET-2 and ET-3 attenuated significantly the migration and invasion of human colon cancer cells. We conclude that epigenetic inactivation of ET-2 and ET-3 occurs frequently in both rat and human colon cancers. Current therapeutic strategies target overexpressed members of the ET axis via small molecule inhibitors and receptor antagonists, but this work supports a complementary approach based on the re-expression of ET-2 and ET-3 as natural antagonists of ET-1 in colon cancer.

A role for low-abundance miRNAs in colon cancer: the miR-206/Krüppel-like factor 4 (KLF4) axis.

BACKGROUND: MicroRNAs (miRNAs or miRs) are short non-coding RNAs that affect the expression of genes involved in normal physiology, but that also become dysregulated in cancer development. In the latter context, studies to date have focused on high-abundance miRNAs and their targets. We hypothesized that among the pool of low-abundance miRNAs are some with the potential to impact crucial oncogenic signaling networks in colon cancer. RESULTS: Unbiased screening of over 650 miRNAs identified miR-206, a low-abundance miRNA, as the most significantly altered miRNA in carcinogen-induced rat colon tumors. Computational modeling highlighted the stem-cell marker Krüppel-like factor 4 (KLF4) as a potential target of miR-206. In a panel of primary human colon cancers, target validation at the mRNA and protein level confirmed a significant inverse relationship between miR-206 and KLF4, which was further supported by miR-206 knockdown and ectopic upregulation in human colon cancer cells. Forced expression of miR-206 resulted in significantly increased cell proliferation kinetics, as revealed by real-time monitoring using HCT116 cells. CONCLUSIONS: Evolutionarily conserved high-abundance miRNAs are becoming established as key players in the etiology of human cancers. However, low-abundance miRNAs, such as miR-206, are often among the most significantly upregulated miRNAs relative to their expression in normal non-transformed tissues. Low-abundance miRNAs are worthy of further investigation, because their targets include KLF4 and other pluripotency and cancer stem-cell factors.

MicroRNA profiling of carcinogen-induced rat colon tumors and the influence of dietary spinach.

SCOPE: MicroRNA (miRNA) profiles are altered in chronic conditions such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, neurological disorders, and cancer. A systems biology approach was used to examine, for the first time, miRNAs altered in rat colon tumors induced by 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP), a heterocyclic amine carcinogen from cooked meat. METHODS AND RESULTS: Among the most highly dysregulated miRNAs were those belonging to the let-7 family. Subsequent computational modeling and target validation identified c-Myc and miRNA-binding proteins Lin28A/Lin28B (Lin28) as key players, along with Sox2, Nanog, and Oct-3/4. These targets of altered miRNAs in colon cancers have been implicated in tumor recurrence and reduced patient survival, in addition to their role as pluripotency factors. In parallel with these findings, the tumor-suppressive effects of dietary spinach given postinitiation correlated with elevated levels of let-7 family members and partial normalization of c-myc, Sox2, Nanog, Oct-3/4, HmgA2, Dnmt3b, and P53 expression. CONCLUSION: We conclude that the let-7/c-Myc/Lin28 axis is dysregulated in heterocyclic amine-induced colon carcinogenesis, and that the tumor suppressive effects of dietary spinach are associated with partial normalization of this pathway.

Histone deacetylase turnover and recovery in sulforaphane-treated colon cancer cells: competing actions of 14-3-3 and Pin1 in HDAC3/SMRT corepressor complex dissociation/reassembly.

BACKGROUND: Histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors are currently undergoing clinical evaluation as anti-cancer agents. Dietary constituents share certain properties of HDAC inhibitor drugs, including the ability to induce global histone acetylation, turn-on epigenetically-silenced genes, and trigger cell cycle arrest, apoptosis, or differentiation in cancer cells. One such example is sulforaphane (SFN), an isothiocyanate derived from the glucosinolate precursor glucoraphanin, which is abundant in broccoli. Here, we examined the time-course and reversibility of SFN-induced HDAC changes in human colon cancer cells. RESULTS: Cells underwent progressive G2/M arrest over the period 6-72 h after SFN treatment, during which time HDAC activity increased in the vehicle-treated controls but not in SFN-treated cells. There was a time-dependent loss of class I and selected class II HDAC proteins, with HDAC3 depletion detected ahead of other HDACs. Mechanism studies revealed no apparent effect of calpain, proteasome, protease or caspase inhibitors, but HDAC3 was rescued by cycloheximide or actinomycin D treatment. Among the protein partners implicated in the HDAC3 turnover mechanism, silencing mediator for retinoid and thyroid hormone receptors (SMRT) was phosphorylated in the nucleus within 6 h of SFN treatment, as was HDAC3 itself. Co-immunoprecipitation assays revealed SFN-induced dissociation of HDAC3/SMRT complexes coinciding with increased binding of HDAC3 to 14-3-3 and peptidyl-prolyl cis/trans isomerase 1 (Pin1). Pin1 knockdown blocked the SFN-induced loss of HDAC3. Finally, SFN treatment for 6 or 24 h followed by SFN removal from the culture media led to complete recovery of HDAC activity and HDAC protein expression, during which time cells were released from G2/M arrest. CONCLUSION: The current investigation supports a model in which protein kinase CK2 phosphorylates SMRT and HDAC3 in the nucleus, resulting in dissociation of the corepressor complex and enhanced binding of HDAC3 to 14-3-3 or Pin1. In the cytoplasm, release of HDAC3 from 14-3-3 followed by nuclear import is postulated to compete with a Pin1 pathway that directs HDAC3 for degradation. The latter pathway predominates in colon cancer cells exposed continuously to SFN, whereas the former pathway is likely to be favored when SFN has been removed within 24 h, allowing recovery from cell cycle arrest.

beta-catenin is strongly elevated in rat colonic epithelium following short-term intermittent treatment with 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP) and a high-fat diet.

Colon tumors expressing high levels of beta-catenin and c-myc have been reported in male F344 rats given three short cycles of 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP) alternating with a high-fat (HF) diet. Using the same experimental protocol, rats were euthanized 24 h after the last dose of PhIP so as to examine early changes in colonic crypt homeostasis and beta-catenin expression, before the onset of frank tumors. PhIP/HF dosing caused a significant increase in the bromodeoxyuridine labeling index throughout the entire colon, and within the colonic crypt column cleaved caspase-3 was elevated in the basal and central zones, but reduced in the luminal region. In vehicle/HF controls, beta-catenin was immunolocalized primarily at the border between cells at the top of the crypt, whereas in rats given PhIP/HF diet there was strong cytoplasmic staining, which appeared as a gradient of increased beta-catenin extending from the base of the crypt column to the luminal region. Quantitative real-time PCR and immunoblot analyses confirmed that beta-catenin and c-myc were increased significantly in the colonic mucosa of rats given PhIP/HF diet. Collectively, these findings suggest that PhIP/HF cycling alters beta-catenin and c-myc expression in the colonic mucosa, resulting in expansion of the proliferative zone and redistribution of apoptotic cells from the lumen to the central and basal regions of the colonic crypt. Thus, during the early stages of colon carcinogenesis, alternating exposure to heterocyclic amines and a high-fat diet might facilitate molecular changes resulting in dysregulated beta-catenin and c-myc expression.

Protective versus promotional effects of white tea and caffeine on PhIP-induced tumorigenesis and beta-catenin expression in the rat.

A 1 year carcinogenicity bioassay was conducted in rats treated with three short cycles of 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP)/high-fat (HF) diet, followed by 2% white tea (wt/vol), 0.05% epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) or 0.065% caffeine as sole source of fluid intake. Thirty-two percent of the PhIP/HF controls survived to 1 year, compared with 50, 48.7 and 18.2% in groups given white tea, EGCG and caffeine, respectively. After 1 year, PhIP/HF controls had tumors in the colon, skin, small intestine, Zymbal's gland, salivary gland and pancreas. For all sites combined, excluding the colon, tumor incidence data were as follows: PhIP/HF 69.5%, PhIP/HF + EGCG 48.7%, PhIP/HF + white tea 46.9% and PhIP/HF + caffeine 13.3%. Unexpectedly, a higher incidence of colon tumors was detected in rats post-treated with white tea (69%) and caffeine (73%) compared with the 42% incidence in PhIP/HF controls. In the colon tumors, beta-catenin mutations were detected at a higher frequency after caffeine posttreatment, and there was a shift toward more tumors harboring substitutions of Gly34 with correspondingly high protein and messenger RNA expression seen for both beta-catenin and c-Myc. c-Myc expression exhibited concordance with tumor promotion, and there was a concomitant increase in cell proliferation versus apoptosis in colonic crypts. A prior report described suppression of PhIP-induced colonic aberrant crypts by the same test agents, but did not incorporate a HF diet. These findings are discussed in the context of epidemiological data which do not support an adverse effect of tea and coffee on colon tumor outcome-indeed, some such studies suggest a protective role for caffeinated beverages.

Comparison of white tea, green tea, epigallocatechin-3-gallate, and caffeine as inhibitors of PhIP-induced colonic aberrant crypts.

There is growing interest in the possible health benefits of tea. We reported previously on the inhibition by white tea of 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP)-induced colonic aberrant crypt foci (ACF) in the rat (4). To distinguish between blocking and suppressing effects, and thus provide mechanistic insights into prevention during the initiation versus post-initiation phases of carcinogenesis, white tea, and green tea were administered at 2% (w/v) as the sole source of drinking fluid either 2 wk before and 2 wk during PhIP dosing (100 mg/kg, every other day by oral gavage), or starting 1 wk after the carcinogen and continued until the study was terminated at 16 wk. In the former protocol, each tea produced marginal inhibition of colonic ACF, despite evidence for changes in several hepatic enzymes involved in heterocyclic amine metabolism. Post-initiation, however, the data were as follows (ACF/colon, mean +/- SE): PhIP/water 12.2 +/- 1.5; PhIP/white tea 5.9 +/- 0.9 (** P < 0.01); PhIP/caffeine 5.9 +/- 1.5 (** P < 0.01); PhIP/EGCG 3.5 +/- 0.8 (***P < 0.001); PhIP/green tea 8.9 +/- 1.2 (P = 0.22, not significant). In the latter study, apoptosis was determined using in situ oligo ligation and cleaved caspase-3 assays, whereas cell proliferation was assessed via bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) incorporation. No consistent changes were seen in apoptosis assays, but BrdU labeling was as follows (percent of cells positive/colonic crypt, mean +/- SE): PhIP/water 10.4 +/- 0.6; PhIP/white tea 8.6 +/- 0.2 (*P < 0.05); PhIP/EGCG 6.0 +/- 0.85 (** P < 0.01); PhIP/caffeine 8.75 +/- 0.45 (*P < 0.05); PhIP/green tea 9.5 +/- 0.4 (P > 0.05, not significant). The data imply that white tea, caffeine, and EGCG may be most effective post-initiation, via the inhibition of cell proliferation in the colon and through the suppression of early lesions.

Tumors from rats given 1,2-dimethylhydrazine plus chlorophyllin or indole-3-carbinol contain transcriptional changes in beta-catenin that are independent of beta-catenin mutation status.

Tumors induced in the rat by 1,2-dimethylhydrazine (DMH) contain mutations in beta-catenin, but the spectrum of such mutations can be influenced by phytochemicals such as chlorophyllin (CHL) and indole-3-carbinol (I3C). In the present study, we determined the mutation status of beta-catenin in more than 50 DMH-induced colon tumors and small intestine tumors, and compared this with the concomitant expression of beta-catenin mRNA using quantitative real-time RT-PCR analysis. In total, 19/57 (33%) of the tumors harbored mutations in beta-catenin, and 14/19 (74%) of the genetic changes substituted amino acids adjacent to Ser33, a key site for phosphorylation and beta-catenin degradation. These tumors were found to express a 10-fold range of beta-catenin mRNA levels, independent of the beta-catenin mutation status and phytochemical exposure, i.e. CHL or I3C given post-initiation. However, beta-catenin mRNA levels were strongly correlated with mRNA levels of c-myc, c-jun and cyclin D1, which are targets of beta-catenin/Tcf signaling. Tumors with the highest levels of beta-catenin mRNA often had over-expressed beta-catenin protein, and those with lower beta-catenin mRNA typically had low beta-catenin protein expression, but there were exceptions (high beta-catenin mRNA/low beta-catenin protein, or vice versa). We conclude that DMH-induced mutations stabilize beta-catenin protein in tumors, which increase c-myc, c-jun and cyclin D1, but there also can be over-expression of beta-catenin itself at the mRNA level, contributing to high beta-catenin protein levels. Similar findings have been reported in primary human colon cancers and their liver metastases, compared with matched normal-looking tissue. Thus, further studies are warranted on the mechanisms that upregulate beta-catenin at the transcriptional level in human and rodent colon cancers.

Sulforaphane inhibits histone deacetylase in vivo and suppresses tumorigenesis in Apc-minus mice.

Sulforaphane (SFN) is an isothiocyanate from broccoli that induces phase 2 detoxification enzymes. We recently reported that SFN acts as a histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitor in human colon cancer cells in vitro, and the present study sought to extend these findings in vivo. In mice treated with a single oral dose of 10 mumol SFN, there was significant inhibition of HDAC activity in the colonic mucosa after 6 h, and immunoblots revealed a concomitant increase in acetylated histones H3 and H4, which returned to control levels by 48 h. Longer-term treatment with SFN in the diet resulted in levels of acetylated histones and p21(WAF1) in the ileum, colon, prostate, and peripheral blood mononuclear cells that were elevated compared with controls. Consistent with these findings, SFN suppressed tumor development in Apc(min) mice, and there was an increase in acetylated histones in the polyps, including acetylated histones specifically associated with the promoter region of the P21 and bax genes. These results provide the first evidence for HDAC inhibition by SFN in vivo and imply that such a mechanism might contribute to the cancer chemoprotective and therapeutic effects of SFN, alone or in combination with other HDAC inhibitors currently undergoing clinical trials.

Phosphorylation and ubiquitination of oncogenic mutants of beta-catenin containing substitutions at Asp32.

Beta-Catenin, a member of the Wnt signaling pathway, is downregulated by glycogen synthase kinase-3beta (GSK-3beta)-dependent phosphorylation of Ser/Thr residues in the N-terminus of the protein, followed by ubiquitination and proteosomal degradation. In human and rodent cancers, mutations that substitute one of the critical Ser/Thr residues in the GSK-3beta region of beta-catenin stabilize the protein and activate beta-catenin/TCF/LEF target genes. This study examined three oncogenic beta-catenin mutants from rat colon tumors containing substitutions adjacent to amino-acid residue Ser33, a key target for phosphorylation by GSK-3beta. Compared with wild-type beta-catenin (WT), the beta-catenin mutants D32G, D32N, and D32Y strongly activated TCF-4-dependent transcription in HEK293 cells, and there was accumulation of beta-catenin in the cell lysates. Immunoblotting with phosphospecific antibodies indicated that there was little if any effect on the phosphorylation of Ser37, Thr41 or Ser45; however, the phosphorylation of Ser33 appeared to be affected in the beta-catenin mutants. Specifically, antiphospho-beta-catenin 33/37/41 antibody identified high, intermediate and low expression levels of phosphorylated beta-catenin in cells transfected with D32G, D32N and D32Y, respectively. Experiments with the proteosome inhibitor N-acetyl-Leu-Leu-norleucinal (ALLN) revealed ubiquitinated bands on all three mutant beta-catenins, as well as on WT beta-catenin. The relative order of ubiquitination was WT>D32G>D32N>D32Y, in parallel with findings from the phosphorylation studies. These results are discussed in the context of previous studies, which indicated that amino-acid residue D32 lies within the ubiquitination recognition motif of beta-catenin.

Suppression of tumorigenesis in the Apc(min) mouse: down-regulation of beta-catenin signaling by a combination of tea plus sulindac.

Epidemiological and animal studies suggest that tea may be protective towards cancers of the GI tract. White tea, the least processed form of tea, contains high levels of polyphenols and, like green tea, is chemopreventive towards heterocyclic amine-initiated colonic aberrant crypt formation in male F344 rats. We examined for the first time the relative effectiveness of white and green tea in suppressing intestinal tumorigenesis in C57BL/6J-Apc(Min/+) (Apc(min)) mice. Each tea was also compared with sulindac, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug known to be highly effective in Apc(min) mice. Male C57BL/6J (+/+) (wild-type) and Apc(min) mice were treated in the drinking water with white tea or green tea (1.5% w/v, 2 min brew-time), 80 p.p.m. sulindac, a combination of 80 p.p.m. sulindac in 1.5% white tea, or pH buffered water. After 12 weeks of treatment, Apc(min) mice given white tea, green tea, or sulindac had significantly fewer tumors than controls (P < 0.05). The protection provided by 1.5% green or white tea was comparable to that provided by 80 p.p.m. sulindac. Mice treated with a combination of white tea plus sulindac had significantly fewer tumors than either treatment alone (P < 0.05). beta-catenin and beta-catenin/Tcf-4 regulated proteins Cyclin D(1) and c-Jun were readily detected in polyps, but markedly reduced in normal-looking intestines of mice treated with both tea and sulindac. This research provides evidence that teas, particularly when administered in combination with sulindac, are highly effective at inhibiting intestinal neoplasia in male Apc(min) mice via direct or indirect effects on the beta-catenin/APC pathway.