Neotropics as a Cradle for Adaptive Radiations.

Neotropical ecosystems are renowned for numerous examples of adaptive radiation in both plants and animals resulting in high levels of biodiversity and endemism. However, we still lack a comprehensive review of the abiotic and biotic factors that contribute to these adaptive radiations. To fill this gap, we delve into the geological history of the region, including the role of tectonic events such as the Andean uplift, the formation of the Isthmus of Panama, and the emergence of the Guiana and Brazilian Shields. We also explore the role of ecological opportunities created by the emergence of new habitats, as well as the role of key innovations, such as novel feeding strategies or reproductive mechanisms. We discuss different examples of adaptive radiation, including classic ones like Darwin's finches and Anolis lizards, and more recent ones like bromeliads and lupines. Finally, we propose new examples of adaptive radiations mediated by ecological interactions in their geological context. By doing so, we provide insights into the complex interplay of factors that contributed to the remarkable diversity of life in the Neotropics and highlight the importance of this region in understanding the origins of biodiversity.

Theory-based antecedents of breastfeeding among pregnant women in the United States.

Background: Breastfeeding provides several positive health benefits for the newborn child, yet breastfeeding rates remain low in the United States (US). Theory-based approaches have the potential to improve breastfeeding promotion interventions. Hence, the study examined the correlates of intention to breastfeed among US pregnant women based on the multi-theory model (MTM) of health behavior change. Methods: Using a cross-sectional design, a 36-item online survey was administered to a nationally representative sample of 315 pregnant women in the US. The instrument was psychometrically validated for face, content, and construct validity by a panel of six experts over two rounds. Further, construct validation was done by confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Hierarchical regression modeling was employed to explain the intention to start breastfeeding and sustain exclusive breastfeeding for up to six months and with complementary foods for up to 24 months. Results: Internal consistency using Cronbach's alpha was found to be acceptable. It was found that behavioral confidence and changes in the physical environment positively affected the initiation of breastfeeding (P<0.01; adjusted R2=0.478). All three constructs of MTM namely practice for change, emotional transformation, and changes in the social environment were significant predictors for the sustenance of breastfeeding at six months (P<0.01; adjusted R2=0.591) and at 24 months (P<0.01; adjusted R2=0.347). Conclusion: Based on the findings of this study it is essential for educators and healthcare providers to design MTM-based interventions to promote breastfeeding among pregnant women in the US.

Evolvability of cancer-associated genes under APOBEC3A/B selection.

Evolvability is an emergent hallmark of cancer that depends on intra-tumor heterogeneity and genetic variation. Mutations generated by APOBEC3 contribute to genetic variation and tumor evolvability. However, the influence of APOBEC3 on the evolvability of the genome and its differential impact on cancer genes versus non-cancer genes remains unclear. Analyzing over 40,000 human protein-coding transcripts, we identified distinct distribution patterns of APOBEC3A/B TC motifs between cancer and non-cancer genes, suggesting unique associations with cancer. Studying a bat species with numerous APOBEC3 genes, we found distinct motif patterns in orthologs of cancer genes compared to non-cancer genes, as in humans, suggesting APOBEC3 evolution to reduce impacts on the genome rather than the converse. Simulations confirmed that APOBEC3-induced heterogeneity enhances cancer evolution through bimodal patterns of mutations in certain classes of genes. Our results suggest the bimodal distribution of APOBEC-induced mutations can significantly increase cancer heterogeneity.

Evolvability of cancer-associated genes under APOBEC3A/B selection.

Evolvability is an emergent hallmark of cancer that depends on intra-tumor heterogeneity and, ultimately, genetic variation. Mutations generated by APOBEC3 cytidine deaminases can contribute to genetic variation and the consequences of APOBEC activation differ depending on the stage of cancer, with the most significant impact observed during the early stages. However, how APOBEC activity shapes evolutionary patterns of genes in the host genome and differential impacts on cancer-associated and non-cancer genes remain unclear. Analyzing over 40,000 human protein-coding transcripts, we identified distinct distribution patterns of APOBEC3A/B TC motifs between cancer-related genes and controls, suggesting unique associations with cancer. Studying a bat species with many more APOBEC3 genes, we found diverse motif patterns in orthologs of cancer genes compared to controls, similar to humans and suggesting APOBEC evolution to reduce impacts on the genome rather than the converse. Simulations confirmed that APOBEC-induced heterogeneity enhances cancer evolution, shaping clonal dynamics through bimodal introduction of mutations in certain classes of genes. Our results suggest that a major consequence of the bimodal distribution of APOBEC affects greater cancer heterogeneity.

Robust evidence for bats as reservoir hosts is lacking in most African virus studies: a review and call to optimize sampling and conserve bats.

Africa experiences frequent emerging disease outbreaks among humans, with bats often proposed as zoonotic pathogen hosts. We comprehensively reviewed virus-bat findings from papers published between 1978 and 2020 to evaluate the evidence that African bats are reservoir and/or bridging hosts for viruses that cause human disease. We present data from 162 papers (of 1322) with original findings on (1) numbers and species of bats sampled across bat families and the continent, (2) how bats were selected for study inclusion, (3) if bats were terminally sampled, (4) what types of ecological data, if any, were recorded and (5) which viruses were detected and with what methodology. We propose a scheme for evaluating presumed virus-host relationships by evidence type and quality, using the contrasting available evidence for Orthoebolavirus versus Orthomarburgvirus as an example. We review the wording in abstracts and discussions of all 162 papers, identifying key framing terms, how these refer to findings, and how they might contribute to people's beliefs about bats. We discuss the impact of scientific research communication on public perception and emphasize the need for strategies that minimize human-bat conflict and support bat conservation. Finally, we make recommendations for best practices that will improve virological study metadata.

Cochlea development shapes bat sensory system evolution.

Sensory organs must develop alongside the skull within which they are largely encased, and this relationship can manifest as the skull constraining the organs, organs constraining the skull, or organs constraining one another in relative size. How this interplay between sensory organs and the developing skull plays out during the evolution of sensory diversity; however, remains unknown. Here, we examine the developmental sequence of the cochlea, the organ responsible for hearing and echolocation, in species with distinct diet and echolocation types within the ecologically diverse bat super-family Noctilionoidea. We found the size and shape of the cochlea largely correlates with skull size, with exceptions of Pteronotus parnellii, whose high duty cycle echolocation (nearly constant emission of sound pulses during their echolocation process allowing for detailed information gathering, also called constant frequency echolocation) corresponds to a larger cochlear and basal turn, and Monophyllus redmani, a small-bodied nectarivorous bat, for which interactions with other sensory organs restrict cochlea size. Our findings support the existence of developmental constraints, suggesting that both developmental and anatomical factors may act synergistically during the development of sensory systems in noctilionoid bats.

The evolution of antimicrobial peptides in Chiroptera.

High viral tolerance coupled with an extraordinary regulation of the immune response makes bats a great model to study host-pathogen evolution. Although many immune-related gene gains and losses have been previously reported in bats, important gene families such as antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) remain understudied. We built an exhaustive bioinformatic pipeline targeting the major gene families of defensins and cathelicidins to explore AMP diversity and analyze their evolution and distribution across six bat families. A combination of manual and automated procedures identified 29 AMP families across queried species, with α-, ß-defensins, and cathelicidins representing around 10% of AMP diversity. Gene duplications were inferred in both α-defensins, which were absent in five species, and three ß-defensin gene subfamilies, but cathelicidins did not show significant shifts in gene family size and were absent in Anoura caudifer and the pteropodids. Based on lineage-specific gains and losses, we propose diet and diet-related microbiome evolution may determine the evolution of α- and ß-defensins gene families and subfamilies. These results highlight the importance of building species-specific libraries for genome annotation in non-model organisms and shed light on possible drivers responsible for the rapid evolution of AMPs. By focusing on these understudied defenses, we provide a robust framework for explaining bat responses to pathogens.

Disentangling Mechanical and Sensory Modules in the Radiation of Noctilionoid Bats.

AbstractWith diverse mechanical and sensory functions, the vertebrate cranium is a complex anatomical structure whose shifts between modularity and integration, especially in mechanical function, have been implicated in adaptive diversification. Yet how mechanical and sensory systems and their functions coevolve, as well as how their interrelationship contributes to phenotypic disparity, remain largely unexplored. To examine the modularity, integration, and evolutionary rates of sensory and mechanical structures within the head, we analyzed hard and soft tissue scans from ecologically diverse bats in the superfamily Noctilionoidea, a clade that ranges from insectivores and carnivores to frugivores and nectarivores. We identified eight regions that evolved in a coordinated fashion, thus recognizable as evolutionary modules: five associated with bite force and three linked to olfactory, visual, and auditory systems. Interrelationships among these modules differ between Neotropical leaf-nosed bats (family Phyllostomidae) and other noctilionoids. Consistent with the hypothesis that dietary transitions begin with changes in the capacity to detect novel food items followed by adaptations to process them, peak rates of sensory module evolution predate those of some mechanical modules. We propose that the coevolution of structures influencing bite force, olfaction, vision, and hearing constituted a structural opportunity that allowed the phyllostomid ancestor to take advantage of existing ecological opportunities and contributed to the clade's remarkable radiation.

Evolutionary potential of the monkeypox genome arising from interactions with human APOBEC3 enzymes.

APOBEC3, an enzyme subfamily that plays a role in virus restriction by generating mutations at particular DNA motifs or mutational 'hotspots', can drive viral mutagenesis with host-specific preferential hotspot mutations contributing to pathogen variation. While previous analysis of viral genomes from the 2022 Mpox (formerly Monkeypox) disease outbreak has shown a high frequency of C>T mutations at TC motifs, suggesting recent mutations are human APOBEC3-mediated, how emerging monkeypox virus (MPXV) strains will evolve as a consequence of APOBEC3-mediated mutations remains unknown. By measuring hotspot under-representation, depletion at synonymous sites, and a combination of the two, we analyzed APOBEC3-driven evolution in human poxvirus genomes, finding varying hotspot under-representation patterns. While the native poxvirus molluscum contagiosum exhibits a signature consistent with extensive coevolution with human APOBEC3, including depletion of TC hotspots, variola virus shows an intermediate effect consistent with ongoing evolution at the time of eradication. MPXV, likely the result of recent zoonosis, showed many genes with more TC hotspots than expected by chance (over-representation) and fewer GC hotspots than expected (under-representation). These results suggest the MPXV genome: (1) may have evolved in a host with a particular APOBEC GC hotspot preference, (2) has inverted terminal repeat (ITR) regions-which may be exposed to APOBEC3 for longer during viral replication-and longer genes likely to evolve faster, and therefore (3) has a heightened potential for future human APOBEC3-meditated evolution as the virus spreads in the human population. Our predictions of MPXV mutational potential can both help guide future vaccine development and identification of putative drug targets and add urgency to the task of containing human Mpox disease transmission and uncovering the ecology of the virus in its reservoir host.

Evolutionary potential of the monkeypox genome arising from interactions with human APOBEC3 enzymes.

APOBEC3, an enzyme subfamily that plays a role in virus restriction by generating mutations at particular DNA motifs or mutational "hotspots," can drive viral mutagenesis with host-specific preferential hotspot mutations contributing to pathogen variation. While previous analysis of viral genomes from the 2022 Mpox (formerly Monkeypox) disease outbreak has shown a high frequency of C>T mutations at T C motifs, suggesting recent mutations are human APOBEC3-mediated, how emerging monkeypox virus (MPXV) strains will evolve as a consequence of APOBEC3-mediated mutations remains unknown. By measuring hotspot under-representation, depletion at synonymous sites, and a combination of the two, we analyzed APOBEC3-driven evolution in human poxvirus genomes, finding varying hotspot under-representation patterns. While the native poxvirus molluscum contagiosum exhibits a signature consistent with extensive coevolution with human APOBEC3, including depletion of T C hotspots, variola virus shows an intermediate effect consistent with ongoing evolution at the time of eradication. MPXV, likely the result of recent zoonosis, showed many genes with more T C hotspots than expected by chance (over-representation) and fewer G C hotspots than expected (under-representation). These results suggest the MPXV genome: 1) may have evolved in a host with a particular APOBEC G C hotspot preference, 2) has inverted terminal repeat (ITR) regions -which may be exposed to APOBEC3 for longer during viral replication- and longer genes likely to evolve faster, and therefore 3) has a heightened potential for future human APOBEC3-meditated evolution as the virus spreads in the human population. Our predictions of MPXV mutational potential can both help guide future vaccine development and identification of putative drug targets and add urgency to the task of containing human Mpox disease transmission and uncovering the ecology of the virus in its reservoir host.

Histological and MRI brain atlas of the common shrew, Sorex araneus, with brain region-specific gene expression profiles.

The common shrew, Sorex araneus, is a small mammal of growing interest in neuroscience research, as it exhibits dramatic and reversible seasonal changes in individual brain size and organization (a process known as Dehnel's phenomenon). Despite decades of studies on this system, the mechanisms behind the structural changes during Dehnel's phenomenon are not yet understood. To resolve these questions and foster research on this unique species, we present the first combined histological, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and transcriptomic atlas of the common shrew brain. Our integrated morphometric brain atlas provides easily obtainable and comparable anatomic structures, while transcriptomic mapping identified distinct expression profiles across most brain regions. These results suggest that high-resolution morphological and genetic research is pivotal for elucidating the mechanisms underlying Dehnel's phenomenon while providing a communal resource for continued research on a model of natural mammalian regeneration. Morphometric and NCBI Sequencing Read Archive are available at https://doi.org/10.17617/3.HVW8ZN.

Insights into mammalian TE diversity through the curation of 248 genome assemblies.

We examined transposable element (TE) content of 248 placental mammal genome assemblies, the largest de novo TE curation effort in eukaryotes to date. We found that although mammals resemble one another in total TE content and diversity, they show substantial differences with regard to recent TE accumulation. This includes multiple recent expansion and quiescence events across the mammalian tree. Young TEs, particularly long interspersed elements, drive increases in genome size, whereas DNA transposons are associated with smaller genomes. Mammals tend to accumulate only a few types of TEs at any given time, with one TE type dominating. We also found association between dietary habit and the presence of DNA transposon invasions. These detailed annotations will serve as a benchmark for future comparative TE analyses among placental mammals.

Chiropterans Are a Hotspot for Horizontal Transfer of DNA Transposons in Mammalia.

Horizontal transfer of transposable elements (TEs) is an important mechanism contributing to genetic diversity and innovation. Bats (order Chiroptera) have repeatedly been shown to experience horizontal transfer of TEs at what appears to be a high rate compared with other mammals. We investigated the occurrence of horizontally transferred (HT) DNA transposons involving bats. We found over 200 putative HT elements within bats; 16 transposons were shared across distantly related mammalian clades, and 2 other elements were shared with a fish and two lizard species. Our results indicate that bats are a hotspot for horizontal transfer of DNA transposons. These events broadly coincide with the diversification of several bat clades, supporting the hypothesis that DNA transposon invasions have contributed to genetic diversification of bats.

Morphology and niche evolution influence hummingbird speciation rates.

How traits affect speciation is a long-standing question in evolution. We investigate whether speciation rates are affected by the traits themselves or by the rates of their evolution, in hummingbirds, a clade with great variation in speciation rates, morphology and ecological niches. Further, we test two opposing hypotheses, postulating that speciation rates are promoted by trait conservatism or, alternatively, by trait divergence. To address these questions, we analyse morphological (body mass and bill length) and niche traits (temperature and precipitation position and breadth, and mid-elevation), using a variety of methods to estimate speciation rates and correlate them with traits and their evolutionary rates. When it comes to the traits, we find faster speciation in smaller hummingbirds with shorter bills, living at higher elevations and experiencing greater temperature ranges. As for the trait evolutionary rates, we find that speciation increases with rates of divergence in the niche traits, but not in the morphological traits. Together, these results reveal the interplay of mechanisms through which different traits and their evolutionary rates (conservatism or divergence) influence the origination of hummingbird diversity.

The macroevolutionary impact of recent and imminent mammal extinctions on Madagascar.

Many of Madagascar's unique species are threatened with extinction. However, the severity of recent and potential extinctions in a global evolutionary context is unquantified. Here, we compile a phylogenetic dataset for the complete non-marine mammalian biota of Madagascar and estimate natural rates of extinction, colonization, and speciation. We measure how long it would take to restore Madagascar's mammalian biodiversity under these rates, the "evolutionary return time" (ERT). At the time of human arrival there were approximately 250 species of mammals on Madagascar, resulting from 33 colonisation events (28 by bats), but at least 30 of these species have gone extinct since then. We show that the loss of currently threatened species would have a much deeper long-term impact than all the extinctions since human arrival. A return from current to pre-human diversity would take 1.6 million years (Myr) for bats, and 2.9 Myr for non-volant mammals. However, if species currently classified as threatened go extinct, the ERT rises to 2.9 Myr for bats and 23 Myr for non-volant mammals. Our results suggest that an extinction wave with deep evolutionary impact is imminent on Madagascar unless immediate conservation actions are taken.

A solution to the challenges of interdisciplinary aggregation and use of specimen-level trait data.

Understanding variation of traits within and among species through time and across space is central to many questions in biology. Many resources assemble species-level trait data, but the data and metadata underlying those trait measurements are often not reported. Here, we introduce FuTRES (Functional Trait Resource for Environmental Studies; pronounced few-tress), an online datastore and community resource for individual-level trait reporting that utilizes a semantic framework. FuTRES already stores millions of trait measurements for paleobiological, zooarchaeological, and modern specimens, with a current focus on mammals. We compare dynamically derived extant mammal species' body size measurements in FuTRES with summary values from other compilations, highlighting potential issues with simply reporting a single mean estimate. We then show that individual-level data improve estimates of body mass-including uncertainty-for zooarchaeological specimens. FuTRES facilitates trait data integration and discoverability, accelerating new research agendas, especially scaling from intra- to interspecific trait variability.

Ecological constraints on highly evolvable olfactory receptor genes and morphology in neotropical bats.

Although evolvability of genes and traits may promote specialization during species diversification, how ecology subsequently restricts such variation remains unclear. Chemosensation requires animals to decipher a complex chemical background to locate fitness-related resources, and thus the underlying genomic architecture and morphology must cope with constant exposure to a changing odorant landscape; detecting adaptation amidst extensive chemosensory diversity is an open challenge. In phyllostomid bats, an ecologically diverse clade that evolved plant visiting from a presumed insectivorous ancestor, the evolution of novel food detection mechanisms is suggested to be a key innovation, as plant-visiting species rely strongly on olfaction, supplementarily using echolocation. If this is true, exceptional variation in underlying olfactory genes and phenotypes may have preceded dietary diversification. We compared olfactory receptor (OR) genes sequenced from olfactory epithelium transcriptomes and olfactory epithelium surface area of bats with differing diets. Surprisingly, although OR evolution rates were quite variable and generally high, they are largely independent of diet. Olfactory epithelial surface area, however, is relatively larger in plant-visiting bats and there is an inverse relationship between OR evolution rates and surface area. Relatively larger surface areas suggest greater reliance on olfactory detection and stronger constraint on maintaining an already diverse OR repertoire. Instead of the typical case in which specialization and elaboration are coupled with rapid diversification of associated genes, here the relevant genes are already evolving so quickly that increased reliance on smell has led to stabilizing selection, presumably to maintain the ability to consistently discriminate among specific odorants-a potential ecological constraint on sensory evolution.

Colonial Legacies Influence Biodiversity Lessons: How Past Trade Routes and Power Dynamics Shape Present-Day Scientific Research and Professional Opportunities for Caribbean Scientists.

AbstractScientists recognize the Caribbean archipelago as a biodiversity hotspot and employ it for their research as a natural laboratory. Yet they do not always appreciate that these ecosystems are in fact palimpsests shaped by multiple human cultures over millennia. Although post-European anthropogenic impacts are well documented, human influx into the region began about 5,000 years prior. Thus, inferences of ecological and evolutionary processes within the Caribbean may in fact represent artifacts of an unrecognized human legacy linked to issues influenced by centuries of colonial rule. The threats posed by stochastic natural and anthropogenically influenced disasters demand that we have an understanding of the natural history of endemic species if we are to halt extinctions and maintain access to traditional livelihoods. However, systematic issues have significantly biased our biological knowledge of the Caribbean. We discuss two case studies of the Caribbean's fragmented natural history collections and the effects of differing governance by the region's multiple nation states. We identify knowledge gaps and highlight a dire need for integrated and accessible inventorying of the Caribbean's collections. Research emphasizing local and international collaboration can lead to positive steps forward and will ultimately help us more accurately study Caribbean biodiversity and the ecological and evolutionary processes that generated it.

Contradictory Phylogenetic Signals in the Laurasiatheria Anomaly Zone.

Relationships among laurasiatherian clades represent one of the most highly disputed topics in mammalian phylogeny. In this study, we attempt to disentangle laurasiatherian interordinal relationships using two independent genome-level approaches: (1) quantifying retrotransposon presence/absence patterns, and (2) comparisons of exon datasets at the levels of nucleotides and amino acids. The two approaches revealed contradictory phylogenetic signals, possibly due to a high level of ancestral incomplete lineage sorting. The positions of Eulipotyphla and Chiroptera as the first and second earliest divergences were consistent across the approaches. However, the phylogenetic relationships of Perissodactyla, Cetartiodactyla, and Ferae, were contradictory. While retrotransposon insertion analyses suggest a clade with Cetartiodactyla and Ferae, the exon dataset favoured Cetartiodactyla and Perissodactyla. Future analyses of hitherto unsampled laurasiatherian lineages and synergistic analyses of retrotransposon insertions, exon and conserved intron/intergenic sequences might unravel the conflicting patterns of relationships in this major mammalian clade.

Diversity in olfactory receptor repertoires is associated with dietary specialization in a genus of frugivorous bat.

Mammalian olfactory receptor genes (ORs) are a diverse family of genes encoding proteins that directly interact with environmental chemical cues. ORs evolve via gene duplication in a birth-death fashion, neofunctionalizing and pseudogenizing over time. Olfaction is a primary sense used for food detection in plant-visiting bats, but the relationship between dietary specialization and OR repertoire diversity is unclear. Within neotropical Leaf-nosed bats (Phyllostomidae), many lineages are plant specialists, and some have a distinct OR repertoire compared to insectivorous species. Yet, whether specialization on particular plant genera is associated with the evolution of specialized, less diverse OR repertoires has never been tested. Using targeted sequence capture, we sequenced the OR repertoires of three sympatric species of short-tailed fruit bats (Carollia), which vary in their degree of specialization on the fruits of Piper plants. We characterized orthologous vs duplicated receptors among Carollia species, and explored the diversity and redundancy of the receptor gene repertoire. At the species level, the most dedicated Piper specialist, Carollia castanea, had lower OR diversity compared to the two generalists (C. sowelli and C. perspicillata), but we discovered a few unique sets of ORs within C. castanea with high redundancy of similar gene duplicates. These unique receptors potentially enable C. castanea to detect Piper fruit odorants better than its two congeners. Carollia perspicillata, the species with the most generalist diet, had a higher diversity of intact receptors, suggesting the ability to detect a wider range of odorant molecules. Variation among ORs may be a factor in the coexistence of these sympatric species, facilitating the exploitation of different plant resources. Our study sheds light on how gene duplication and changes in OR diversity may play a role in dietary adaptations and underlie ecological interactions between bats and plants.