Exploratory analysis of Symbiodinium transcriptomes reveals potential latent infection by large dsDNA viruses.

Coral reefs are in decline worldwide. Much of this decline is attributable to mass coral bleaching events and disease outbreaks, both of which are linked to anthropogenic climate change. Despite increased research effort, much remains unknown about these phenomena, especially the causative agents of many coral diseases. In particular, coral-associated viruses have received little attention, and their potential roles in coral diseases are largely unknown. Previous microscopy studies have produced evidence of viral infections in Symbiodinium, the endosymbiotic algae critical for coral survival, and more recently molecular evidence of Symbiodinium-infecting viruses has emerged from metagenomic studies of corals. Here, we took an exploratory whole-transcriptome approach to virus gene discovery in three different Symbiodinium cultures. An array of virus-like genes was found in each of the transcriptomes, with the majority apparently belonging to the nucleocytoplasmic large DNA viruses. Upregulation of virus-like gene expression following stress experiments indicated that Symbiodinium cells may host latent or persistent viral infections that are induced via stress. This was supported by analysis of host gene expression, which showed changes consistent with viral infection after exposure to stress. If these results can be replicated in Symbiodinium cells in hospite, they could help to explain the breakdown of the coral-Symbiodinium symbiosis, and possibly some of the numerous coral diseases that have yet to be assigned a causative agent.

Latent virus-like infections are present in a diverse range of Symbiodinium spp. (Dinophyta).

Coral reefs are increasingly threatened by disease outbreaks, which affect the coral animal and/or its algal symbionts (Symbiodinium spp.) and can cause mass mortalities. Currently around half of the recognized coral diseases have unknown causative agents. While many of the diseases are thought to be bacterial in origin, there is growing evidence that viruses may play a role. In particular, it appears that viruses may infect the algal symbionts, causing breakdown of the coral-algal mutualism. In this study, we screened a wide range of Symbiodinium cultures in vitro for the presence of latent viral infections. Using flow cytometry and electron microscopy, we found that many types of Symbiodinium apparently harbor such infections, and that the type of putative virus varied within and among host types. Furthermore, the putative viral infections could be induced via abiotic stress and cause host cell lysis and population decline. If similar processes occur in Symbiodinium cells in hospite, they may provide an explanation for some of the diseases affecting corals and other organisms forming symbioses with these algae.

The ecology of 'Acroporid white syndrome', a coral disease from the southern Great Barrier Reef.

Outbreaks of coral disease have increased worldwide over the last few decades. Despite this, remarkably little is known about the ecology of disease in the Indo-Pacific Region. Here we report the spatiotemporal dynamics of a coral disease termed 'Acroporid white syndrome' observed to affect tabular corals of the genus Acropora on the southern Great Barrier Reef. The syndrome is characterised by rapid tissue loss initiating in the basal margins of colonies, and manifests as a distinct lesion boundary between apparently healthy tissue and exposed white skeleton. Surveys of eight sites around Heron Reef in 2004 revealed a mean prevalence of 8.1±0.9%, affecting the three common species (Acropora cytherea, A. hyacinthus, A. clathrata) and nine other tabular Acropora spp. While all sizes of colonies were affected, white syndrome disproportionately affected larger colonies of tabular Acroporids (>80 cm). The prevalence of white syndrome was strongly related to the abundance of tabular Acroporids within transects, yet the incidence of the syndrome appears unaffected by proximity to other colonies, suggesting that while white syndrome is density dependant, it does not exhibit a strongly aggregated spatial pattern consistent with previous coral disease outbreaks. Acroporid white syndrome was not transmitted by either direct contact in the field or by mucus in aquaria experiments. Monitoring of affected colonies revealed highly variable rates of tissue loss ranging from 0 to 1146 cm(-2) week(-1), amongst the highest documented for a coral disease. Contrary to previous links between temperature and coral disease, rates of tissue loss in affected colonies increased threefold during the winter months. Given the lack of spatial pattern and non-infectious nature of Acroporid white syndrome, further studies are needed to determine causal factors and longer-term implications of disease outbreaks on the Great Barrier Reef.

Identification of a diagnostic marker to detect freshwater cyanophages of filamentous cyanobacteria.

Cyanophages are viruses that infect the cyanobacteria, globally important photosynthetic microorganisms. Cyanophages are considered significant components of microbial communities, playing major roles in influencing host community diversity and primary productivity, terminating cyanobacterial water blooms, and influencing biogeochemical cycles. Cyanophages are ubiquitous in both marine and freshwater systems; however, the majority of molecular research has been biased toward the study of marine cyanophages. In this study, a diagnostic probe was developed to detect freshwater cyanophages in natural waters. Oligonucleotide PCR-based primers were designed to specifically amplify the major capsid protein gene from previously characterized freshwater cyanomyoviruses that are infectious to the filamentous, nitrogen-fixing cyanobacterial genera Anabaena and Nostoc. The primers were also successful in yielding PCR products from mixed virus communities concentrated from water samples collected from freshwater lakes in the United Kingdom. The probes are thought to provide a useful tool for the investigation of cyanophage diversity in freshwater environments.