Neuraxial analgesia in a pregnant woman with Fowler's syndrome and sacral neuromodulation.

We report the anesthetic management of a 16-year-old woman with Fowler's syndrome who became pregnant three years after sacral neuromodulation was initiated for treatment of the condition. Multidisciplinary consensus was to switch off the neurostimulator during pregnancy, and attempt vaginal delivery with a neuraxial block. When the patient was admitted for labor, an epidural catheter was placed successfully. The patient had a normal vaginal delivery. Sacral neuromodulation was restarted uneventfully in the early puerperium and the Fowler's syndrome remains well controlled. The baby continues to develop normally three years after delivery.

José Martí: paradigma de la generosidad / José Martí: paradigm of generosity

Este trabajo tiene el objetivo de argumentar cómo se manifiesta la generosidad en la vida y obra de José Martí. Muestra la necesidad e importancia de recurrir a sus obras para fortalecer este valor desde los escenarios familiares, escolares, comunitarios y sociales. Se concluyó que la generosidad constituye en la actualidad una tarea pedagógica de gran importancia y el legado martiano es una vía obligada a recorrer (AU)

This work has the objective of analyzing how the generosity in Marti's life and work is expressed. It shows the need and importance of turning to his works to strengthen this value from the family, scholar, community and social scenes. It was concluded that generosity constitutes at the present time a pedagogical task of great importance and the Martian legate is an obligated way to travel (AU)

C. albicans, C. parapsilosis and C. tropicalis invasive infections in the PICU: clinical features, prognosis and mortality.

Candida albicans remains the most common agent associated with invasive Candida infection (ICI), but with increasing number of non-albicans species. An epidemiological, observational study exploring host criteria, clinical characteristics and mortality of ICI was performed in 24 pediatric intensive care units (PICU) in Spain. Patients were analyzed in global and distributed by infecting species (for groups with ≥ 15 patients). A total of 125 ICI were included: 47 by C. albicans, 37 by C. parapsilosis, 19 by C. tropicalis, 4 C. glabrata, and 18 others. Up to 66% of ICI by C. albicans and 75.7% by C. parapsilosis occurred in children ≤ 24 months, while the percentage of children >60 months was higher in ICI by C. tropicalis. Bloodstream infection was most common among C. tropicalis (78.9%) or C. parapsilosis (83.8%) ICI, but urinary infections were almost as common as bloodstream infections among C. albicans ICI (31.9% and 38.3%, respectively). Fever refractory to antimicrobials was the most frequent host criterion (46.4% patients), but with equal frequency than prolonged neutropenia in C. tropicalis ICI. Thrombopenia was more frequent (p<0.05) in C. parapsilosis (60.7%) or C. tropicalis (66.7%) ICI than in C. albicans ICI (26.5%). Uremia was more frequent (p<0.05) in C. albicans (78.3%) or C. tropicalis (73.3%) than in C. parapsilosis ICI (40.7%). Multiple organ failure and heart insufficiency was higher in C. tropicalis ICI. Short duration (≤ 7 days) of PICU stay was more frequent in C. albicans ICI. Mortality rates were: 8.5% (C. albicans ICI), 13.5% (C. parapsilosis ICI) and 23.3% (C. tropicalis ICI). ICI by different Candida species showed different clinical profiles and mortality, making essential identification at species level.

Peripheral contributions to olfactory bulb cell populations (migrations towards the olfactory bulb).

The olfactory system represents one of the most suitable models to study interactions between the peripheral and central nervous systems. The developing olfactory epithelium (olfactory placode and pit) gives rise to several cell populations that migrate towards the telencephalic vesicle. One of these cell populations, called the Migratory Mass (MM), accompanies the first emerging olfactory axons from the olfactory placode, but the fate of these cells and their contribution to the Olfactory Bulb (OB) populations has not been properly addressed. To asses this issue we performed ultrasound-guided in utero retroviral injections at embryonic day (E) 11 revealing the MM as an early source of Olfactory Ensheathing Cells in later postnatal stages. Employing a wide number of antibodies to identify the nature of the infected cells we described that those cells generated within the MM at E11 belong to different cell populations both in the mesenchyma, where they envelop olfactory axons and express the most common glial markers, and in the olfactory bulb, where they are restricted to the Olfactory Nerve and Glomerular layers. Thus, the data reveal the existence of a novel progenitor class within the MM, potentially derived from the olfactory placode which gives rise to different neural cell population including some CNS neurons, glia and olfactory ensheathing cells.

Further studies on cortical tangential migration in wild type and Pax-6 mutant mice.

In this study we present new data concerning the tangential migration from the medial and lateral ganglionic eminences (MGE and LGE) to the cerebral cortex during development. We have used Calbindin as a useful marker to follow the itinerary of tangential migratory cells during early developmental stages in wild-type and Pax-6 homozygous mutant mice. In the wild-type mice, at early developmental stages, migrating cells advance through the intermediate zone (IZ) and preplate (PP). At more advanced stages, migrating cells were present in the subplate (SP) and cortical plate (CP) to reach the entire developing cerebral cortex. We found that, in the homozygous mutant mice (Pax-6(Sey-Neu)/Pax-6(Sey-Neu)), this tangential migration is severely affected at early developmental stages: migrating cells were absent in the IZ, which were only found some days later, suggesting that in the mutant mice, there is a temporal delay in tangential migration. We have also defined some possible mechanisms to explain certain migratory routes from the basal telencephalon to the cerebral cortex. We describe the existence of two factors, which we consider to be essential for the normal migration; the first one is the cell adhesion molecule PSA-NCAM, whose role in other migratory systems is well known. The second factor is Robo-2, whose expression delimits a channel for the passage of migratory cells from the basal telencephalon to the cerebral cortex.

Evidence for intrinsic development of olfactory structures in Pax-6 mutant mice.

It has been reported that the arrival of primary olfactory axons is required to induce the development of the olfactory bulb (OB). On the other hand, the Sey(Neu)/Sey(Neu) mutant mouse (Small eye) has been previously described as a model for the absence of olfactory bulbs, owing to the lack of olfactory epithelium (OE). In the present report, we take advantage of this mutant and study a neural structure in the rostral pole of the telencephalon that phenotypically resembles the prospective OB. We named this formation olfactory bulb-like structure (OBLS). We also report the occurrence, in the mutants, of small epithelial vesicles in the malformed craneofacial pits, resembling an atrophic OE, although a mature olfactory nerve was not identified. Axonal tracing, birthdating, immunohistochemistry, and in situ hybridization using antibodies and probes expressed in the olfactory system, indicated that two distinct structures observed in the OBLS correspond to the main and accessory olfactory bulbs of the control mouse. We propose that the OBLS has developed independently of the external influences exerted by the olfactory nerve. The presence of a prospective OB in the mutants, without intervening olfactory fibers, suggests that intrinsic factors could define brain territories even in absence of the proper afferent innervation. The intrinsic mechanisms and environmental cues in the telencephalon could be sufficient to promote axonogenesis in the projection neurons of the OB and guide their axons in a lateral prospective tract, in the absence of olfactory axons.

Development of the mammillothalamic tract in normal and Pax-6 mutant mice.

The mammillary bodies represent important relay stations for one of the major neuronal circuits in the brain: the limbic circuit. Mammillary projections traveling through the principal mammillary tract are established early during development, forming the mammillotegmental bundle, which appears fully developed by embryonic day 15 (E15). The mammillothalamic tract develops later, around E17-E18, forming a compact system of collateral fibers originating from the principal mammillary tract and reaching the thalamus by E20. The Pax-6 gene is expressed in various regions of the developing brain, among which the border separating the ventral thalamus from the dorsal thalamus, known as the zona limitans intrathalamica, is especially significant. In this report, the development of the efferent mammillary system of fibers was studied in wild type and Pax-6 mutant mice by using carbocyanine tracers and Golgi preparations. In mutant mice, the mammillotegmental bundle developed normally; however, the mammillothalamic tract was missing. By using anti-Pax-6 antibodies in wild type mice, the existence of an immunoreactive cell cluster is described surrounding the bifurcation point of the principal mammillary tract. The results of this study suggest that there is a correlation of these cells with a particular type of Golgi impregnated neuron.

Central olfactory structures in Pax-6 mutant mice.

During the development of the olfactory system, cells located in the olfactory placode/olfactory pit send their axons toward the rostral part of the telencephalic vesicles (TVs). Some of these enter the TV inducing the formation of the olfactory bulbs (OBs), whereas, mitral and tufted cell axons form the lateral olfactory tract (LOT). Our recent studies have shown that the beginning of the central olfactory projections is independent of the arrival of olfactory receptor neuron (ORN) axons to the TV. Here we have used the mouse carrying a mutation in the Pax-6 gene to study whether the nasal olfactory structures intervene in the formation of central olfactory structures. This mutant as well as lacking a nose and eyes, is reported to lack olfactory epithelium and OB. However, we have found an ovoid cellular structure localized in the rostral part of the brain, and some cells in this structure project axons toward the piriform cortex forming a presumptive LOT. We conclude that the referred structure is an OB, which fails to develop because the mutation in the Pax-6 gene affects the formation of nasal structures. As such, fibers of the ORNs are necessary for the protrusion and layered formation of the OB, but these inputs are not necessary for the establishment of the central olfactory projections.

[MUltiple sclerosis and obstetric epidural analgesia]. / Esclerosis múltiple y analgesia epidural obstétrica.

A prior diagnosis of multiple sclerosis (MS) has been considered a contraindication for performing epidural blocks due to the possible negative impact of the course of disease. For this reason, women with MS who given birth have rarely benefited from obstetric epidural analgesia. We report the case of a woman giving birth at full-term who had been diagnosed one year before the pregnancy of "probable" MS. She was given epidural analgesia with a mixture of bupivacaine and fentanyl at low doses. Both the birth and the immediate postpartum period transpired without complications and no new signs of disease were reported over the following years. We conclude that obstetric epidural analgesia with bupivacaine administered at a low concentration is safe for women with MS.

Early olfactory fiber projections and cell migration into the rat telencephalon.

The formation and development of primary olfactory axons was studied in the rat embryo using acetylcholinesterase histochemistry, immunocytochemistry for neuron-specific beta-tubulin (TuJ1) and growth associated protein 43 (GAP43), and a fluorescent tracer DiI. Olfactory axons extend from the olfactory receptor neurons localized in the olfactory epithelium. These fibers grow to reach and enter the olfactory bulbs, where they form the first relay and integrative synaptic station in the olfactory system: the olfactory glomerulus. In this communication we address the development of primary olfactory fibers: first from the olfactory placode and later from the olfactory epithelium. Olfactory fibers enter the olfactory bulbs apparently in a disordered manner but soon arrange themselves in hook shaped aggregates of fibers, with many boutons (immature synaptic terminals), to form the glomeruli. We detected this kind of structure for the first time at embryonic day 16. The olfactory receptor cells are usually anchored in the basal lamina of the olfactory epithelium but some of them, after reaching their targets, lose their epithelial attachment, leave the olfactory epithelium and migrate to and enter the olfactory bulbs. The traffic of cells between the olfactory epithelium and the brain lasts late into embryonic development. We describe four types of migratory mechanism used by different populations of cells to reach their targets in the telencephalic vesicle and propose the existence of migrating cells that enter the telencephalon. These data were corroborated by injections into the olfactory epithelium a of murine retrovirus carrying the Escherichia coli lac-Z gene.

Dynamics of cell migration from the lateral ganglionic eminence in the rat.

From previous developmental studies, it has been proposed that the neurons of the ventrolateral cortex, including the primary olfactory cortex, differentiate from progenitor cells in the lateral ganglionic eminence. The objective of the present study was to test this hypothesis. The cells first generated in the forebrain of the rat migrate to the surface of the telencephalic vesicle by embryonic day (E) 12. Using [3H]thymidine, we found that most of these cells contributed to the formation of the deep layer III of the primary olfactory cortex. To study the migratory routes of these cells, we made localized injections of the carbocyanine fluorescent tracers Dil and DiA into various parts of the lateral ganglionic eminence in living embryos at E12-E14 and subsequently maintained the embryos in a culture device for 17-48 hr. After fixation, most migrating cells were located at the surface of the telencephalic vesicle, whereas others were seen coursing tangentially into the preplate. Injections made at E13 and in fixed tissue at E15 showed that migrating cells follow radial glial fibers extending from the ventricular zone of the lateral ganglionic eminence to the ventrolateral surface of the telencephalic vesicle. The spatial distribution of radial glial fibers was studied in Golgi preparations, and these observations provided further evidence of the existence of long glial fibers extending from the ventricular zone of the lateral ganglionic eminence to the ventrolateral cortex. We conclude that cells of the primary olfactory cortex derive from the lateral ganglionic eminence and that some early generated cells migrating from the lateral ganglionic eminence transgress the cortico-striatal boundary entering the preplate of the neocortical primordium.

Early onset of the rat olfactory bulb projections.

Using the fluorescent carbocyanine tracer DiI, we examined in detail the early development of the projections emanating from the rat olfactory bulb. The study commenced at embryonic day 13 when the first fibres can be detected and ended at embryonic day 20, when all major fibre systems have been established. The first axons arising from the prospective olfactory bulb area are seen at embryonic day 13. Labelled fibres are provided with elaborate axonal growth cones advancing through the ventrolateral part of the telencephalic vesicle. At embryonic day 14, while the main fibre tract has not developed much further, some isolated fibres are located quite distally from the prospective olfactory bulb. These early fibres apparently course within a narrow cell-free space that extends caudally along the ventrolateral part of the telencephalic vesicle. At embryonic day 15, a number of labelled fibres form a compact bundle, corresponding to the lateral olfactory tract, that ultimately reaches the prospective primary olfactory cortex. The fibres do not stop growing, but continue to extend caudally at embryonic day 17. The results of this study provide new information on the development of axonal tracts in the olfactory system. We show that the olfactory tract projection develops earlier than the morphological appearance of the olfactory bulbs. This suggests that the early development of olfactory projections might not depend on the arrival of the olfactory epithelium axons and thus, could be governed by factors intrinsic to the neurons and/or cues present in the target environment.

Time of origin and early fate of preplate cells in the cerebral cortex of the rat.

The time of origin, development, and morphology of neurons originating before the establishment of the cortical plate (preplate cells) were studied in the telencephalic vesicle of the rat from the embryonic day 10 (E10) to E15. The first postmitotic neurons settle superficial to the ventricular zone in the preplate at E12. We have observed mitotic figures in the preplate at E12 and E13, and regarded them as a possible source of cortical neurons outside the ventricular zone. It is suggested that these cells may correspond to Cajal-Retzius cells. The appearance of cells before the formation of the cortical plate was studied in animals injected with tritiated thymidine at E12 and E13 and correlated with observations made using an antibody to neuron specific class III beta-tubulin that becomes detectable immediately after the last mitotic division. Immunoreactive cells detected with this antibody concentrate at E12 immediately below the pial surface constituting the preplate. Radially oriented cells, most probably subplate neurons, were also present spanning the full thickness of the neuroepithelium, suggesting that the preplate contains different cell classes. We present a working hypothesis that explains the sequence of developmental events during the early phases of cortical histogenesis.

The telencephalic vesicles are innervated by olfactory placode-derived cells: a possible mechanism to induce neocortical development.

During early embryonic development, the olfactory placode is the source of different cell types migrating toward the telencephalic vesicle. Among these cell types are the ensheathing cells, the luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone-producing cells and the olfactory marker protein-immunoreactive cells. We have identified a novel group of olfactory placode-derived migratory cells using an antibody against beta-tubulin to label neurons and acetylcholinesterase histochemistry to label posmitotic cells. In this paper we describe the morphology, migration and fate of this novel group of cells. The first neurons detected in the rostral prosencephalon with acetylcholinesterase and anti-beta-tubulin antibody are localized in the olfactory placodes at embryonic day 11 in the rate. At embryonic day 12, anti-beta-tubulin antibody-positive cells were observed in the mesenchymal tissue between the olfactory pit and the rostral pole of the telencephalic vesicle. Anti-beta-tubulin antibody-positive cells were seen running superficially over the pial (dorsal) side of the telencephalic vesicle at embryonic day 13. The majority of these cells have a bipolar profile with short leading and trailing processes, suggesting that they are migratory elements. However, some of these cells showed elaborate processes extending for quite long distances, overlying the pial surface of the telencephalic vesicle. A mass of cells extending over the telencephalic vesicle from the developing olfactory epithelium were observed at embryonic day 13 using acetylcholinesterase histochemistry. Some of these acetylcholinesterase-positive cells were identified as neurons with the specific neuronal marker anti-beta-tubulin antibody. On embryonic day 12, neurons from the olfactory epithelium send axonal fibers toward the telencephalic vesicles. Most of these fibers spread over the anteroventral pole of the vesicles but others entered deep into the telencephalon, reaching the germinal ventricular zone. We also show that fibers run rostrocaudally over the surface of the telencephalic vesicles. We suggest that these cells and fibers, apparently originating in the olfactory placode and migrating through non-conventional routes, might play a significant role in the earliest stages of telencephalic vesicle development.

Persistence of early-generated neurons in the rodent subplate: assessment of cell death in neocortex during the early postnatal period.

In the rat, the deepest neocortical layer forms a conspicuous cell band known as layer Vlb. Cells in layer Vlb are among the first to differentiate, and it has been regarded as an homolog to the subplate of primates and carnivores. Cell death has been considered a universal feature of subplate cells. In order to assess the validity of this assertion, we examined the sequence of generation and the extent of cell death in layer Vlb. This was achieved using injections of 3H-thymidine and two methods for the direct visualization of apoptotic figures. Single injections of 3H-thymidine were performed between E12 and E15 (E0 is the day of insemination), and brains were examined at different postnatal ages between P1 and P63. The number of heavily labeled cells were counted in layer Vlb in six standard, equally spaced coronal sections in each brain. Single injections at E12 labels about 3% of the entire population of layer Vlb cells, 17% at E13, 30% at E14, and < 1% at E15. Our results indicate that the absolute number of heavily labeled cells in layer Vlb remains constant. The analysis of variance (one-way ANOVA) showed that the difference among the group means was not significant from P1 to P63 after injections at either E12, E13, or E14. In order to confirm these results, we evaluated the distribution of pyknotic (apoptotic) cell bodies in the neocortex. Apoptotic cells were visualized in Nissl preparations and by histochemical staining using an in situ apoptosis detection kit. The analysis was performed in rats from E18 to P15. Both methods gave comparable results. We found that the amount of cell death in layer Vlb is neither particularly prominent nor significantly different from that which occurs in the remaining neocortical layers, apart from layer II and in the white matter of the corpus callosum. We conclude that neuronal death does not play any significant role in the rodent subplate.

Development of acetylcholinesterase-positive thalamic and basal forebrain afferents to embryonic rat neocortex.

By combining anterograde and retrograde axonal tracing with AChE histochemistry, we demonstrate the sources of AChE-positive afferents to embryonic neocortex, the pathways they use, their time of arrival into cortex, and their initial invasion of the cortical plate. Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) is expressed by two populations of cortical afferents: AChE is permanently present in basal forebrain fibers and has been reported to be transiently localized in axons of the principal sensory thalamic nuclei over the first few postnatal weeks beginning at the middle of the first week. We first detect AChE-positive afferents histochemically in neocortex on embryonic day seventeen (E17) and determine that they arise from the principal sensory thalamic nuclei. AChE histochemistry labels the entire length of developing thalamocortical axons, including their growth cones and branches. These AChE-positive afferents enter the neocortex by the internal capsule and take an intracortical pathway centered on the subplate layer. As soon as these axons are detected, some have already begun to extend AChE-positive collateral branches superficially toward the cortical plate. By E19, a few collaterals have entered the deep part of the cortical plate and by E21 have densely invaded all but its most superficial undifferentiated part. AChE-positive afferents from basal forebrain structures reach the neocortex by three routes: the external capsule, the internal capsule, and the cingulate bundle. Among basal forebrain components, only the substantia innominata and nucleus basalis of Meynert reach the cortex by the internal capsule. Afferents from these two sources reach neocortex on E18, but are a very minor component of the total population of AChE-positive afferents at this age. Afferents from other basal forebrain components do not reach neocortex until several days later. The spatial and temporal patterns of AChE expression in developing thalamocortical axons indicate that it is useful for delineating their innervation of the primary sensory areas of embryonic neocortex, and suggest that AChE may function in axon extension and cortical differentiation.

Acetylcholinesterase as an early marker of the differentiation of dorsal thalamus in embryonic rats.

The enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE) is transiently expressed in rats by neurons of the principal sensory thalamic nuclei, although these neurons do not use acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter. Reports that AChE expression begins at late embryonic stages led to the proposal that AChE may function in the establishment of connections, but not in earlier events. However, we find AChE reactivity in rat dorsal thalamus 5 days earlier than previously described. Cells that form the ventrobasal complex (VB), the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus (dLG) and the medial geniculate nucleus, express AChE as they migrate and aggregate into definitive nuclei. AChE-positive cells are occasionally observed in the dorsal thalamic neuroepithelium, but are more common in others regions of the diencephalic neuroepithelium. AChE reactivity delineates VB and dLG earlier than Nissl-stained cytoarchitecture. These findings indicate that AChE is an early marker of neuronal differentiation. Certain properties of AChE, together with its early detection, are consistent with a proposed role in the migration of principal sensory neurons and their organization into discrete nuclei.

Growth and targeting of subplate axons and establishment of major cortical pathways.

In the developing mammalian neocortex, the first postmitotic neurons form the "preplate" superficial to the neuroepithelium. The preplate is later split into a marginal zone (layer 1) and subplate by cortical plate neurons that form layers 2-6. Cortical efferent axons from layers 5 and 6 and cortical afferent axons from thalamus pass between cortex and subcortical structures through the internal capsule. Here, we identify in rats the axonal populations that establish the internal capsule, and characterize the potential role of subplate axons in the development of cortical efferent and afferent projections. The early growth of cortical efferent and afferent axons was studied using 1-1'-dioctodecyl-3,3,3',3'-tetramethylindocarbocyanine perchlorate (Dil) as an anterograde and retrograde tracer in aldehyde-fixed brains of embryonic rats. Cortical axons first enter the nascent internal capsule on embryonic day (E) 14 and originate from lateral and anterior cortex; axons from posterior cortex extend rostrally but do not yet exit cortex. The labeled axons, tipped by growth cones with complex morphologies, take a pathway deep to the preplate. Preplate neurons extend these early cortical efferents, based on the developmental stage of the cortex, and on their location and morphology. Most of these cells later occupy the subplate. Cortical plate neurons extend axons into the internal capsule by E16. En route to the internal capsule, cortical plate axons take the same path as the earlier-growing preplate axons, through the intermediate zone deep to subplate. Subplate axons reach thalamus by E16; the first cortical plate axons enter thalamus about a day later. Thalamic axons enter cortex by E16, prior to other cortical afferents. On E15, both preplate and thalamic axons reach the midpoint of the internal capsule. To determine the subcortical distribution of subplate axons, we used Dil as a retrograde tracer in aldehyde-fixed brains and fast blue and rhodamine-B-isothiocyanate as in vivo retrograde markers in neonatal rats. Tracers were injected into the superior colliculus, the principal midbrain target of layer 5 neurons, at times before, during, and after the arrival of cortical axons, or into the subcortical pathway of primary layer 5 axons at two points, the cerebral peduncle caudal to the internal capsule, and the pyramidal decussation at the junction of the hindbrain and spinal cord, at times shortly after the passing of cortical axons. In every case, the labeled neurons are confined to layer 5; subplate neurons are not labeled.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Structure of the olfactory bulb of the hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus): a Golgi study of the intrinsic organization of the superficial layers.

The intrinsic organization of the mitral cell, external plexiform, and glomerular layers of the main olfactory bulb of the insectivore hedgehog were studied with the Golgi method. This study completes our previous description of the cell types in the granule cell layer in the same subject (López-Mascaraque et al., J. Comp. Neurol. 253:135-152, '86). In the present contribution the morphology of mitral, internal, and middle tufted cells is described with particular interest in the formation and arrangement of glomerular tufts by the primary dendrites, and the disposition of the secondary dendrites. Three types of intrinsic cells were found in the external plexiform layer: Van Gehuchten cells, satellite cells, and horizontal cells. All these cells display unusual patterns of branching processes that were difficult to classify as dendritic or axonal. The close relationship between some processes of the satellite cells with the mitral or tufted cell dendrites is noted, suggesting that these cells may be inhibitory in nature. The external tufted cells are described, and several aspects pertaining to their morphology were considered in order to distinguish them from periglomerular cells and from the remaining tufted cells. External tufted and periglomerular cells appear to be intrinsic neurons, having axons distributed in the periglomerular region, most probably devoted to relating different olfactory glomeruli. The arrangement of glomeruli in the glomerular layer and distinctive characteristics with respect to other mammals were considered from a comparative point of view.