The relevance of European Biota Quality Standards on the ecological water quality as determined by the multimetric macro-invertebrate index: A Flemish case study.

European Biota Quality Standards (EQSbiota), for compounds with low water solubility and high biomagnification, were created to sustain water quality and protect top predators and humans from secondary poisoning. In reality, for multiple compounds, an exceedance of these standards is often reported in literature without a decrease in ecological water quality determined by biotic indices. In the present study, threshold concentrations were defined in biota (from 44 sampling locations throughout Flanders (Belgium)), above which a good ecological water quality, assessed by the Multimetric Macroinvertebrate Index Flanders (MMIF), was never reached. Threshold values were compared to current EQSbiota. Accumulated perfluoroctane sulfonate (PFOS), mercury (Hg), hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) concentrations were measured in muscle tissue of European yellow eel (Anguilla anguilla) and perch (Perca fluviatilis). Fluoranthene and benzo(a)pyrene were also analyzed in translocated mussels (Dreissena bugensis, D. polymorpha and Corbicula fluminea). Threshold values could only be calculated using a 90th quantile regression model for PFOS (in perch; 12 µg/kg ww), PCBs (in eel; 328 µg/kg ww) and benzo(a)pyrene (in mussels: 4.35 µg/kg ww). The lack of a significant regression model for the other compounds indicated an effective threshold value higher than the concentrations measured in the present study. Alternatively, the 95th percentile of concentrations measured in locations with a good ecological quality (MMIF≥0.7), was calculated for all compounds as an additional threshold value. Finally, fish concentrations were standardized for 5% lipid content (or 26% dry weight content for PFOS and Hg). Threshold values for PFOS and benzo(a)pyrene and the 95th percentiles for dioxins and fluoranthene were comparable to the existing standards. For all other compounds, the 95th percentile was higher than the current EQSbiota, while for HBCD, it was lower. These results strongly advise revising and fine-tuning the current EQSbiota, especially for ∑PBDE and HBCD.

Effect of abiotic factors and environmental concentrations on the bioaccumulation of persistent organic and inorganic compounds to freshwater fish and mussels.

Many aquatic ecosystems are under persistent stress due to influxes of anthropogenic chemical pollutants. High concentrations can harm entire ecosystems and be toxic to humans. However, in case of highly hydrophobic compounds, their low water solubility precludes direct measurement in water, and thus alternative monitoring strategies are needed. In the present study, we investigated the extent to which bioaccumulated concentrations of persistent compounds can be predicted by concentrations in environmental compartments (water and sediment). Due to their high biomagnification potential, Hg and PFOS were included in this analysis as well. At 44 field locations in Flanders (Belgium), we monitored the concentrations of 11 priority compounds and their derivatives, included in the Water Framework Directive, in both sediment and water (where feasible) and biota (European perch, European eel and freshwater mussels). Besides, some sediment (i.e. total organic carbon (TOC) and clay content) and water characteristics were measured (i.e. pH, oxygen level, conductivity, nitrate, nitrite and dissolved organic carbon (DOC)). Measurements of HCB, HCBD, cis-heptachlorepoxide, HBCD and PFOS in sediment and ∑PCB in water showed a lower detection frequency than in fish samples. While PCB profiles were comparable between all matrices, for PBDE clear differences were detected between sediment and fish profiles, with BDE99 contributing the most for sediment (34%) and BDE47 for fish (≥44%), followed by BDE99 for perch (28%) and BDE100 for eel (25%). Water concentrations for PFOS and benzo(a)pyrene were predictive of respective bioaccumulated concentrations. HCB, ∑PCB and ∑PBDE, concentrations in fish were dependent on sediment concentrations and negatively related to organic compound levels (p < 0.05). Furthermore, pH and nitrite were negatively associated with accumulated concentrations in eel for HCB and PFOS, respectively (p < 0.05). Strong relationships between bioaccumulation and sediment and/or water concentrations strengthened the basis for surrogate monitoring methods. Finally, the extrapolation potential of Hg, ∑PBDE, PFOS, HBCD and ∑PCB between both fish species offered new opportunities in extrapolating different European monitoring frameworks.

Relationship between pesticide accumulation in transplanted zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) and community structure of aquatic macroinvertebrates.

This study examined to what degree bioaccumulated pesticides in transplanted zebra mussels can give an insight to pesticide bioavailability in the environment. In addition, it was investigated if pesticide body residues could be related to ecological responses (changes in macroinvertebrate community composition). For this at 17 locations, 14 pesticide concentrations and nine dissolved metals were measured in translocated zebra mussels and the results were related to the structure of the macroinvertebrate community. Critical body burdens in zebra mussel, above which the ecological status was always low, could be estimated for chlorpyrifos, terbuthylazine and dimethoate being respectively 8.0, 2.08 and 2.0 ng/g dry weight. With multivariate analysis, changes in the community structure of the macroinvertebrates were related to accumulated pesticides and dissolved metals. From this analysis, it was clear that the composition of the macroinvertebrate communities was not only affected by pesticides but also by metal pollution. Two different regions could be clearly separated, one dominated by metal pollution, and one where pesticide pollution was more important. The results of this study demonstrated that zebra mussel body burdens can be used to measure pesticide bioavailability and that pesticide body burdens might give insight in the ecological impacts of pesticide contamination. Given the interrelated impacts of pesticides and heavy metals, it is important to further validate all threshold values before they can be used by regulators.

Identification of threshold body burdens of metals for the protection of the aquatic ecological status using two benthic invertebrates.

In this study accumulated concentrations of As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn in two benthic invertebrate taxa, Chironomus sp. and Tubificidae are related to ecological responses expressed as changes in macro invertebrate communities. In addition critical body burdens were estimated above which ecological quality was always lower than a certain threshold. Data from existing studies on bioaccumulation of the metals in both taxa were combined with different biological water quality indices. For all metal-endpoint combinations threshold values could be calculated above which ecological quality was always low. Safe threshold body burdens could be estimated for both species for all metals although the data set was more extended for Chrionomus sp. with estimated threshold values being 65, 3.2, 10, 57, 6.5, 73 and 490 µg/g dw for As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn. This study demonstrated that metal accumulation in resistant species such as chironomids and tubificid worms have the potential to be used as predictors of ecological effects in aquatic ecosystems. However, the estimated threshold values have to be validated and supported by more lines of evidence before they can be used by regulators.

Influences of sediment geochemistry on metal accumulation rates and toxicity in the aquatic oligochaete Tubifex tubifex.

Metal bioaccumulation and toxicity in the aquatic oligochaete Tubifex tubifex exposed to three metal-contaminated field-sediments was studied in order to assess whether sediment-geochemistry (AVS, TOC) plays a major role in influencing these parameters, and to assess if the biodynamic concept can be used to explain observed effects in T. tubifex tissue residues and/or toxicity. An active autotomy promotion was observed in three studied sediments at different time points and reproduction impairment could be inferred in T. tubifex exposed to two of the tested sites after 28 days. The present study showed that sediment metal concentration and tissue residues followed significant regression models for four essential metals (Cu, Co, Ni and Zn) and one non-essential metal (Pb). Organic content normalization for As also showed a significant relationship with As tissue residue. Porewater was also revealed to be an important source of metal uptake for essential metals (e.g. Cu, Ni and Zn) and for As, but AVS content was not relevant for metal uptake in T. tubifex in studied sediments. Under the biodynamic concept, it was shown that influx rate from food (IF, sediment ingestion) in T. tubifex, in a range of sediment geochemistry, was able to predict metal bioaccumulation, especially of the essential metals Cu, Ni and Zn, and for the non-essential metal Pb. Additionally, IF appeared to be a better predictor for metal bioaccumulation in T. tubifex compared to sediment geochemistry normalization.

The impact of metal pollution on soil faunal and microbial activity in two grassland ecosystems.

In this study the influence of metal pollution on soil functional activity was evaluated by means of Bait lamina and BIOLOG(®) EcoPlates™ assays. The in situ bait lamina assay investigates the feeding activity of macrofauna, mesofauna and microarthropods while the BIOLOG(®) EcoPlate™ assay measures the metabolic fingerprint of a selectively extracted microbial community. Both assays proved sensitive enough to reveal changes in the soil community between the plots nearest to and further away from a metal pollution source. Feeding activity (FA) at the less polluted plots reached percentages of 90% while plots nearer to the source of pollution reached percentages as low as 10%. After 2 and 6 days of incubation average well color development (AWCD) and functional richness (R') were significantly lower at the plots closest to the source of pollution. While the Shannon Wiener diversity index (H') decreased significantly at sites nearer to the source of pollution after 2 days but not after 6 days of incubation. Arsenic, Cu and Pb correlated significantly and negatively with feeding activity and functional indices while the role of changing environmental factors such as moisture percentage could not be ruled out completely. Compared to the Bait lamina method that is used in situ and which is therefore more affected by site specific variation, the BIOLOG assay, which excludes confounding factors such as low moisture percentage, may be a more reliable assay to measure soil functional activity.

Additive effects of predator cues and dimethoate on different levels of biological organisation in the non-biting midge Chironomus riparius.

The combined effects of a pesticide and predation risk on sublethal endpoints in the midge Chironomus riparius were investigated using a combination of predator-release kairomones from common carp (Cyprinus carpio) and alarm substances from conspecifics together with the pesticide dimethoate. Midge larvae were exposed for 30 days to three sublethal dimethoate concentrations (0.01, 0.1 and 0.25 mg L(-1)) in the presence or absence of predator cues. Sublethal endpoints were analysed at different levels of biological organisation. Available energy reserves, enzyme biomarkers, feeding rate and life history endpoints were investigated. Three endpoints were significantly affected by the two highest dimethoate concentrations, i.e. AChE activity, age at emergence and emergence success, with a significant decrease in response after exposure to 0.25, 0.1 and 0.01 mg L(-1) dimethoate, respectively. Four sublethal endpoints were significantly affected by predator stress: Total protein content, GST activity and biomass decreased only in the presence of the predation risk, while AChE activity further decreased significantly in the presence of predation cues and effects on AChE of combined exposure were additive. From this study we can conclude that sublethal life history characteristics should be included in ecotoxicity testing as well as natural environmental stressors such as predator stress, which might act additively with pollutants on fitness related endpoints.

Relating metal exposure and chemical speciation to trace metal accumulation in aquatic insects under natural field conditions.

The present study investigated to what extent measured dissolved metal concentrations, WHAM-predicted free metal ion activity and modulating water chemistry factors can predict Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd and Pb accumulation in various aquatic insects under natural field conditions. Total dissolved concentrations and accumulated metal levels in four taxa (Leuctra sp., Simuliidae, Rhithrogena sp. and Perlodidae) were determined and free metal ion activities were calculated in 36 headwater streams located in the north-west part of England. Observed invertebrate body burdens were strongly related to free metal ion activities and competition among cations for uptake in the biota. Taking into account competitive effects generally provided better fits than considering uptake as a function of total dissolved metal levels or the free ion alone. Due to the critical importance and large range in pH (4.09 to 8.33), the H(+) ion activity was the most dominant factor influencing metal accumulation. Adding the influence of Na(+) on Cu(2+) accumulation improved the model goodness of fit for both Rhithrogena sp. and Perlodidae. Effects of hardness ions on metal accumulation were limited, indicating the minor influence of Ca(2+) and Mg(2+) on metal accumulation in soft-water streams (0.01 to 0.94 mM Ca; 0.02 to 0.39 mM Mg). DOC levels (ranging from 0.6 to 8.9 mg L(-1)) significantly affected Cu body burdens, however not the accumulation of the other metals. Our results suggest that 1) uptake and accumulation of free metal ions are most dominantly influenced by competition of free H(+) ions in low-hardness headwaters and 2) invertebrate body burdens in natural waters can be predicted based on the free metal ion activity using speciation modelling and effects of H(+) competition.

Predicting As, Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn levels in grasses (Agrostis sp. and Poa sp.) and stinging nettle (Urtica dioica) applying soil-plant transfer models.

The aim of this study was to derive regression-based soil-plant models to predict and compare metal(loid) (i.e. As, Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn) concentrations in plants (grass Agrostis sp./Poa sp. and nettle Urtica dioica L.) among sites with a wide range of metal pollution and a wide variation in soil properties. Regression models were based on the pseudo total (aqua-regia) and exchangeable (0.01 M CaCl2) soil metal concentrations. Plant metal concentrations were best explained by the pseudo total soil metal concentrations in combination with soil properties. The most important soil property that influenced U. dioica metal concentrations was the clay content, while for grass organic matter (OM) and pH affected the As (OM) and Cu and Zn (pH). In this study multiple linear regression models proved functional in predicting metal accumulation in plants on a regional scale. With the proposed models based on the pseudo total metal concentration, the percentage of variation explained for the metals As, Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn were 0.56%, 0.47%, 0.59%, 0.61%, 0.30% in nettle and 0.46%, 0.38%, 0.27%, 0.50%, 0.28% in grass.

Can damselfly larvae (Ischnura elegans) be used as bioindicators of sublethal effects of environmental contamination?

The present study measured various pesticides and trace metals, together with sublethal effect biomarkers (lipid, protein and glycogen levels, acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and glutathione-S-transferase (GST) activities) in damselfly larvae (Ischnura elegans) at sixteen sampling sites in Flanders (Belgium). Four pesticides (chloridazon, dichlorvos, terbutylazine, metolachlor), some of them hardly measurable in surface water, and all trace metals were above the limit of quantification in damselfly tissue. A principal component analysis (PCA) on the accumulated pollutant concentrations returned five pollutant axes explaining 85.8% of the total variation. Based on these PCA-axes a hierarchical cluster analysis revealed that the 16 sampled ponds could be classified in 7 groups. Increasing dichlorvos levels in the animals resulted in a lower body mass. Body mass was negatively correlated with GST and AChE activities, lipid and glycogen levels. The present findings provide evidence of toxicity-induced sublethal stress of dichlorvos accumulation in natural populations of I. elegans.

Behavioural, physiological and biochemical markers in damselfly larvae (Ischnura elegans) to assess effects of accumulated metal mixtures.

Currently it is not known at which organismal level effects of metal mixtures in nature can best be detected, which is relevant to develop accurate monitoring schemes and quality standards. The present study investigated relationships between accumulated metals with different levels of biological organisation in the aquatic larval stage of the damselfly Ischnura elegans. Larvae were collected in seven Flemish ponds differing in metal load. In each field-collected larva we quantified concentrations of accumulated metals and a set of biochemical markers (acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and glutathione-S-transferase (GST)), physiological endpoints (energy storage), and behavioural responses (locomotory activity and the feeding rate). Accumulated metal levels and the measured endpoints significantly differed among ponds, however, a large variation in metal load index was observed within individuals of the same population. Only GST and energy availability could be partly predicted by the observed variation in metal load index on individual damselfly level. However, no single endpoint could be used to detect the observed variation in metal load index among populations. In conclusion, the sublethal endpoints cannot be used as reliable biomarkers to monitor the toxicity of accumulated metal mixtures in natural populations of I. elegans.

The use of invertebrate body burdens to predict ecological effects of metal mixtures in mining-impacted waters.

The present study investigated whether invertebrate body burdens can be used to predict metal-induced effects on aquatic invertebrate communities. Total dissolved metal levels and four invertebrate taxa (Leuctra sp., Simuliidae, Rhithrogena sp. and Perlodidae) were sampled in 36 headwater streams located in the north-west part of England. Using the River Invertebrate Prediction and Classification System (RIVPACS) taxonomic completeness of invertebrate communities was assessed. Quantile regression was used to relate invertebrate body burdens to a maximum (90th quantile) ecological response, both for all metals separately and in mixtures. Significant relations between Cu, Zn and Pb burdens in Leuctra sp. (Zn, Pb), Simuliidae (Zn, Pb), Rhithrogena sp. (Cu, Zn, Cu+Zn) and Perlodidae (Zn) and both taxonomic completeness (O/E taxa) and Biological Monitoring Working Party index scores (O/E BMWP) were observed. Correspondingly the obtained Cu-Zn mixture model an acceptable impact of 5% change in taxonomic completeness is expected at Rhithrogena sp. body burdens of 1.9µmolg(-1) Cu (121 µg g(-1) Cu) in case of low Zn bioavailability (Rhithrogena sp. Zn body burden of 2.9 µmol g(-1) or 190 µg g(-1)), which will drop to 0.30 µmol g(-1) Cu (19.1 µg g(-1) Cu) in case of higher Zn bioavailability (Zn body burden of 72.6 µmol g(-1) or 4747 µg g(-1)). For Zn, 5% change in taxonomic completeness is expected at Rhithrogena sp. body burdens of 76.4 µmol g(-1) Zn (4995 µg g(-1) Zn) in case of low Cu bioavailability (Cu body burden of 0.19 µmol g(-1) or 12.1 µg g(-1)), which will drop to 6.6 µmol g(-1) Zn (432 µg g(-1) Zn) at higher Cu bioavailability (Cu body burden of 1.74 µmol g(-1) or 111 µg g(-1)). Overall, the present study concludes that invertebrate body burdens can be used to (1) predict metal-induced ecological effects and (2) to derive critical burdens for the protection of aquatic invertebrate communities.

Susceptibility to a metal under global warming is shaped by thermal adaptation along a latitudinal gradient.

Global warming and contamination represent two major threats to biodiversity that have the potential to interact synergistically. There is the potential for gradual local thermal adaptation and dispersal to higher latitudes to mitigate the susceptibility of organisms to contaminants and global warming at high latitudes. Here, we applied a space-for-time substitution approach to study the thermal dependence of the susceptibility of Ischnura elegans damselfly larvae to zinc in a common garden warming experiment (20 and 24 °C) with replicated populations from three latitudes spanning >1500 km in Europe. We observed a striking latitude-specific effect of temperature on the zinc-induced mortality pattern; local thermal adaptation along the latitudinal gradient made Swedish, but not French, damselfly larvae more susceptible to zinc at 24 °C. Latitude- and temperature-specific differences in zinc susceptibility may be related to the amount of energy available to defend against and repair damage since Swedish larvae showed a much stronger zinc-induced reduction of food intake at 24 °C. The pattern of local thermal adaptation indicates that the predicted temperature increase of 4 °C by 2100 will strongly magnify the impact of a contaminant such as zinc at higher latitudes unless there is thermal evolution and/or migration of lower latitude genotypes. Our results underscore the critical importance of studying the susceptibility to contaminants under realistic warming scenarios taking into account local thermal adaptation across natural temperature gradients.

Differential hepatic metal and metallothionein levels in three Feral fish species along a metal pollution gradient.

The accumulation of cadmium, copper and zinc and the induction of metallothioneins (MT) in liver of three freshwater fish species was studied. Gudgeon (Gobio gobio), roach (Rutilus rutilus) and perch (Perca fluviatilis) were captured at 6 sampling sites along a cadmium and zinc gradient and one reference site in a tributary of the Scheldt River in Flanders (Belgium). At each site up to 10 individuals per species were collected and analyzed on their general condition factor (K), hepatosomatic index (HSI) and gonadosomatic index (GSI). From each individual fish the liver was dissected and analyzed on Cd, Cu and Zn and MT-content. Although not all species were present at each site, hepatic Cd and Zn levels generally followed the pollution gradient and highest levels were measured in perch, followed by roach and gudgeon. Nevertheless also an effect of site was observed on this order. MT-levels appeared to be the highest in gudgeon although differences with the other species were not very pronounced and depended on the site. Significant relationships were found between hepatic zinc accumulation and MT levels. For each species the ratio MT(theoretical)/ MT(measured) was calculated, which gives an indication of the relative capacity to induce MTs and thus immobilize the metals. Perch had the lowest capacity in inducing MTs (highest ratio). Relationships between hepatic metal levels and fish condition indices were absent or very weak.

Organ- and species-specific accumulation of metals in two land snail species (Gastropoda, Pulmonata).

In order to evaluate the usefulness of terrestrial gastropods as bioindicators there is a need for studies that simultaneously compare (1) concentrations of metals in reference and polluted plots, (2) species within the same polluted habitat, (3) metal accumulation patterns in different organs and (4) metal accumulation patterns in relation to soil physicochemical properties. This study aims to assess metal accumulation patterns in two land snail species. Instead of analyzing an organism as a whole, investigating the partitioning of metals in different organs can provide information on the actual toxicological relevant fractions. Therefore, concentrations of Ag, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni and Zn were examined in five different organs of Cepaea nemoralis, as well as in the foot and the body of Succinea putris. Snails were sampled at four polluted dredged sediment disposal localities and three adjacent less polluted reference plots situated along waterways in Flanders, Belgium. Due to the small size and problematic dissection of S. putris only the concentrations in the foot of both species could be compared. For this reason only, C. nemoralis can be described as a better bioindicator species that allows a far more detailed analysis of organ metal accumulation. This study showed that organs other than the digestive gland may be involved in the immobilization and detoxification of metals. Furthermore, pH, soil fractionation (clay %, silt %, sand %) and organic matter, correlate with metal accumulation in organs. However, most often the soil metal concentrations did not correlate with the concentrations found in snail organs. Metal concentrations in organs of both species (1) differed among polluted plots but rarely between polluted and reference plots within a locality, (2) were organ-specific (digestive gland>foot>albumen gland=spermoviduct=ovotestis), (3) were species-specific and (4) depended on the metal type (high Cd and Cu concentrations were observed in the digestive gland and foot respectively). Our study emphasizes that background metal levels should be taken into account when using invertebrates as bioindicators of metal contamination and that bioindicators may show substantial differences in accumulation patterns even if they have a highly comparable ecology.

Can acid volatile sulfides (AVS) influence metal concentrations in the macrophyte Myriophyllum aquaticum?

The difference between the molar concentrations of simultaneously extracted metals (SEM) and acid volatile sulfides (AVS) is widely used to predict metal availability toward invertebrates in hypoxic sediments. However, this model is poorly investigated for macrophytes. The present study evaluates metal accumulation in roots and stems of the macrophyte Myriophyllum aquaticum during a 54 day lab experiment. The macrophytes, rooting in metal contaminated, hypoxic, and sulfide rich field sediments were exposed to surface water with 40% or 90% oxygen. High oxygen concentrations in the 90% treatment resulted in dissolution of the metal-sulfide complexes and a gradual increase in labile metal concentrations during the experiment. However, the general trend of increasing availability in the sediment with time was not translated in rising M. aquaticum metal concentrations. Processes at the root-sediment interface, e.g., radial oxygen loss (ROL) or the release of organic compounds by plant roots and their effect on metal availability in the rhizosphere may be of larger importance for metal accumulation than the bulk metal mobility predicted by the SEM-AVS model.

Are accumulated sulfide-bound metals metabolically available in the benthic oligochaete Tubifex tubifex?

The present study evaluates the relationship between metal-binding sediment characteristics like acid volatile sulfides (AVS), metal accumulation, and internal metal distribution in the benthic oligochaete Tubifex tubifex and relates this accumulation to the induction of metallothionein-like proteins (MTLPs). In total, 15 Flemish lowland rivers were sampled. Cd, Cu, Zn, Pb, Ni, As, Cr, Co, and Ag concentrations were measured in environmental fractions (water and sediment) and worm tissue (both total and subcellular fractions). Furthermore, total cytosolic MTLP concentrations were measured in the worm tissue. Our results showed that Cd, Pb, Ni, and Cr were mainly stored as biological detoxified metal (BDM) while Cu, Zn, As, and Ag were mostly available in the metal sensitive fraction (MSF). A remarkable difference in the subcellular distribution of accumulated Cd, Ni, and Co between anoxic (SEMMe-AVS<0; mostly stored as BDM) and oxic (SEMMe-AVS>0; mostly stored in the MSF) sediments was noticed. Moreover, a rapid increase in MTLP induction was found when SEMTot-AVS>0. Our results indicate that the accumulated sulfide-bound metals were detoxified and little available to the metabolism of T. tubifex under anoxic conditions.

The relation between Acid Volatile Sulfides (AVS) and metal accumulation in aquatic invertebrates: implications of feeding behavior and ecology.

The present study evaluates the relationship between Acid Volatile Sulfides (AVS) and metal accumulation in invertebrates with different feeding behavior and ecological preferences. Natural sediments, pore water and surface water, together with benthic and epibenthic invertebrates were sampled at 28 Flemish lowland rivers. Different metals as well as metal binding sediment characteristics including AVS were measured and multiple regression was used to study their relationship with accumulated metals in the invertebrates taxa. Bioaccumulation in the benthic taxa was primarily influenced by total metal concentrations in the sediment. Regarding the epibenthic taxa metal accumulation was mostly explained by the more bioavailable metal fractions in both the sediment and the water. AVS concentrations were generally better correlated with metal accumulation in the epibenthic invertebrates, rather than with the benthic taxa. Our results indicated that the relation between AVS and metal accumulation in aquatic invertebrates is highly dependent on feeding behavior and ecology.

Do acid volatile sulfides (AVS) influence the accumulation of sediment-bound metals to benthic invertebrates under natural field conditions?

The present study evaluates the influence of acid volatile sulfides (AVS) on accumulation of sediment-bound metals in benthic invertebrates under natural field conditions. Natural sediments, pore water, surface water, and two species of widespread benthic invertebrates (Chironomus gr. thummi and Tubifex tubifex) were collected from 17 historical polluted Flemish lowland rivers and measured for metal concentrations. Different sediment characteristics were determined (AVS, organic matter, clay content) and multiple regression was used to study their relationship with accumulated metals in the invertebrates. Physical and chemical analysis of the field samples indicated low metal concentrations in the water and pore water, but very high metal concentrations in the sediment and the invertebrates, especially for Pb (5.99 micromol/ g). In general, metal accumulation in chironomids and tubificid worms was most strongly correlated with total metal concentrations in the sediment and sediment metal concentrations normalized for organic matter and clay content. Following the results of the linear regression model, AVS did not turn out to be a significant variable in describing variation in metal accumulation. Our study clearly demonstrates that, in addition to the results gained from experiments under lab conditions, benthic invertebrates can accumulate metals from unspiked field sediments even when there's an excess of AVS.

Responses of aquatic organisms to metal pollution in a lowland river in Flanders: a comparison of diatoms and macroinvertebrates.

The role of macroinvertebrates and diatoms as indicator for metal pollution was investigated by assessing both biota along a metal gradient in the Belgian river the Dommel. Macroinvertebrates and diatoms were sampled in summer and winter and physical-chemical characteristics of the water were measured at four different sample periods and related to sediment characteristics. Although metal concentrations, except cadmium, in the water nowhere exceeded water quality standards, high metal concentrations were measured in the sediment, indicating historical contamination of the Dommel. At the sites that were situated downstream of the pollution source, high levels of conductivity and chloride were measured in the water. Redundancy Analysis (RDA) indicated pH, phosphate and zinc as the significant environmental variables explaining each respectively 7.7%, 11.6% and 22.6% of the macroinvertebrate community composition. Two clusters could be separated, with Gammarus pulex, Leptocerus interruptus, Baetis rhodani and Cloeon dipterum associated with low zinc concentrations and Tubificidae, Asellus aquaticus, Erpobdella sp. and Chironomus thummi-plumosus associated with higher zinc concentrations. Ammonium (10.6%), conductivity (16.5%), chloride (11.4%) and zinc (5.9%) turned out to be significant variables explaining the diatom community structure. Based on physical-chemical differences and species composition, three different groups could be separated. With this Tabellaria flocculosa and Fragilaria capucina var. rumpens were associated with low metal concentrations, Gomphonema parvulum and Nitzschia palea with elevated concentrations and Eolimna minima and Sellaphora seminulum with high zinc concentrations. In conclusion, the diatom community best reflected the metal gradient. With regard to water quality indices, those based on macroinvertebrates best followed the metal pollution gradient and were most strongly correlated with physical-chemical variables of water and sediment. This study indicated that to assess the effect of metal pollution in lowland rivers, the combined use of macroinvertebrates and diatoms is more appropriate than the use of both biota separately.