The mediational role of motivation in the model of motor development in childhood: A longitudinal study.

The aim of this study was twofold: first, to examine the stability of the hypothesized conceptual model of motor development (without and with including various types of motivation) when children are followed up one-year later, and second to examine longitudinally whether changes in one model variable predict changes in other variables, according to the hypothesized pathways in the model. A sample of 361 Spanish students (50.7% girls, 8-11 years old) voluntarily participated in this study. In relation to the first aim, structural equation modeling revealed the expected positive relationship between the model variables in both measurement times. That is: actual motor competence (MC) predicted physical activity (PA) (p < .001), perceived MC mediated the relationship between actual MC and PA (p < .001), and autonomous motivation mediated the relationship between perceived MC and PA (p < .05). Moreover, the comparison of the invariance analysis showed non-practical differences between the unconstrained model and the constrained model, supporting the stability of the model over time. In relation to the second aim, the hypothesized model in Time 2 controlling for Time 1 values showed that changes in children's actual MC positively predicted changes in their perceived MC (p < .001), which in turn, predicted changes in their autonomous motivation (p < .001), and PA (p < .001) at Time 2. Based on these findings Physical Education teachers are recommended to foster children's actual and perceived MC as well as their autonomous motivation over time in order to promote PA strategies for lifelong health.

Potential relevance of a motor skill "proficiency barrier" on health-related fitness in youth.

This study investigated the potential impact of a motor skill proficiency barrier on measures of cardiorespiratory (CRF) and musculoskeletal (MSF) fitness in youth. A sample of 241 youth (114 girls) aged 10 - 18 years, completed the Motor Competence Assessment battery with composite scores indexed according to age- and gender-adjusted percentile scores. Motor competence (MC) levels were categorized as low (≤ 25%tile - proficiency barrier), moderate (≥ 26%tile to < 75%tile), and high (≥ 75%tile). CRF levels (Health Risk, Needs Improvement, and Healthy) were assessed using the Fitnessgram® 20 m PACER test. Low (≤ 20%tile), moderate (≥ 21%tile to ≤ 80%tile), and high (≥ 80%tile) MSF levels were assessed using grip strength normative data. Two 3 × 3 chi-square tests were conducted to determine the probability of MC level predicting CRF and MSF levels. Results demonstrated statistically significant models for performance on both the PACER (χ2[4, N = 241] = 22.65, p < .001) and grip strength (χ2[4, N = 241] = 23.95, p < .001). Strong evidence of a proficiency barrier impacting CRF was noted, as no low skilled youth met the "Healthy" fitness zone standards for PACER performance. Evidence supporting a barrier with grip strength was not as strong, as 20.8% of youth exhibiting low MC displayed high grip strength. However, all individuals with high levels of MC demonstrated at least moderate grip strength. Results emphasize the importance of developing MC during childhood as it may provide a protective effect against unhealthy CRF and MSF across youth.HighlightsThese data support the notion of Seefeldt's (1980) proficiency barrier as it relates to CRF, as no youth demonstrating low MC met the healthy fitness zone criteria for PACER performance. The development of MC may both directly and indirectly provide a protective effect against unhealthy CRF levels across childhood and adolescence.Evidence supporting a proficiency barrier with MSF as measured by grip strength was not as strong; however, all individuals with high levels of MC demonstrated at least moderate grip strength. Thus, the development of MC may be a protective factor to mitigate low levels of MSF via enhanced neuromuscular function.Promoting the development of MC in a variety of developmentally appropriate activities and settings (e.g. MC skills practice, structured and unstructured play, and performance contexts) is important to promote positive trajectories of CRF and MSF across childhood and adolescence.

Reinvest to Assess: Advancing Approaches to Motor Competence Measurement Across the Lifespan.

Measurement of motor competence is a vital process to advancing knowledge in the field of motor development. As motor competence is being more widely linked to research in other academic domains (e.g., public health, neuroscience, behavioral health), it is imperative that measurement methodology and protocols are reproducible with high degrees of validity and reliability. When addressing the plethora of available assessments, mostly developed for youth populations, there are potential questions and concerns that need to be addressed and/or clarified. One of the most prominent issues is the lack of a lifespan measure of motor competence, which is at odds with the premise of the field of motor development-studying changes in motor behavior across the lifespan. We address six areas of concern in lifespan assessment which include: (1) lack of assessment feasibility for conducting research with large samples, (2) lack of accountability for cultural significance of skills assessed, (3) limited sensitivity and discriminatory capabilities of assessments, (4) developmental and ecological validity limitations, (5) a problematic definition of 'success' in skill performance, and (6) task complexity and adaptability limitations. It is important to critically analyze current assessment methodologies as it will help us to envision the development and application of potential new assessments through a more comprehensive lens. Ultimately, we propose that reinvesting in how we think about assessment will be highly beneficial for integrating motor development from a holistic perspective, impact scientific advancements in other developmental domains, and increase global and lifespan surveillance of motor competence.

Learning to Cycle: A Cross-Cultural and Cross-Generational Comparison.

Background: Learning to cycle is an important milestone for children, but the popularity of cycling and the environmental factors that promote the development and practice of this foundational movement skill vary among cultures and across time. This present study aimed to investigate if country of residence and the generation in which a person was born influence the age at which people learn to cycle. Methods: Data were collected through an online survey between November 2019 and December 2020. For this study, a total of 9,589 responses were obtained for adults (self-report) and children (parental report) living in 10 countries (Portugal, Italy, Brazil, Finland, Spain, Belgium, United Kingdom, Mexico, Croatia, and the Netherlands). Participants were grouped according to their year of birth with 20-year periods approximately corresponding to 3 generations: 1960-79 (generation X; n = 2,214); 1980-99 (generation Y; n = 3,994); 2000-2019 (generation Z; n = 3,381). Results: A two-way ANOVA showed a significant effect of country, F(9,8628) = 90.17, p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.086, and generation, F(2,8628) = 47.21, p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.122, on the age at which individuals learn to cycle. Countries with the lowest learning age were the Netherlands, Finland and Belgium and countries with the highest learning age were Brazil and Mexico. Furthermore, the age at which one learns to cycle has decreased across generations. There was also a significant country x generation interaction effect on learning age, F(18,8628) = 2.90, p < 0.001; however, this effect was negligible ( ηp2 = 0.006). Conclusions: These findings support the socio-ecological perspective that learning to cycle is a process affected by both proximal and distal influences, including individual, environment and time.

Perceived Motor Competence Mediates the Relationship Between Gross Motor Skills and Physical Activity in Youth With Visual Impairments.

Children with visual impairments typically demonstrate lower levels of motor competence, physical activity, and perceived motor competence compared to their peers without visual impairments. Stodden and colleagues purport that perceived motor competence mediates the relationship between motor competence and physical activity for youth without visual impairments. Purpose: The purpose of this study was to test whether perceived motor competence mediates the relationship between motor competence and physical activity for youth with visual impairments. Methods: Participants (N = 138; boys = 81, girls = 57) were age 9-18 years (Mage = 13.37, SD = 2.34) with visual impairments. Participants completed the Test of Gross Motor Development-3, the Test of Perceived Physical Competence-VI, and the Physical Activity Questionnaire. Results: Locomotor skills predicted perceived motor competence, which predicted physical activity. Perceived motor competence showed a mediation effect on the path from locomotor skills to physical activity. There was no significant relationship between locomotor skills and physical activity. Conclusion: The results from this study provide initial evidence to support the hypothesis proposed by Stodden and colleagues. These data provide a rationale to include both perceived and actual motor competence within targeted intervention strategies to increase physical activity behaviors for youth with visual impairments. Future research should consider following participants longitudinally to test the roles of perceived and actual motor competence as factors supporting positive developmental trajectories for health.

Profiles of Physical Fitness and Fitness Enjoyment Among Children: Associations With Sports Participation.

Purpose: The present study examined whether groups of children with different physical fitness and fitness enjoyment profiles could be identified and, if so, whether the different groups varied from one another in terms of organized sports participation. Method: Five hundred and fifty-eight 8-11-year-olds (56.99% boys) participated in this cross-sectional study. Physical fitness and fitness enjoyment were assessed with seven items from a standardized test battery and a pictorial scale containing pictures referring to the enjoyment in those seven physical fitness tests, respectively. To examine whether groups with different fitness and enjoyment profiles could be identified, we conducted cluster analyses based on children's standardized physical fitness and fitness enjoyment scores. A two-way ANCOVA (sex*cluster) was conducted to investigate differences in weekly organized sports participation among each of the identified groups while controlling for age. Results: Cluster analyses revealed two groups with aligned levels of physical fitness and fitness enjoyment (i.e., relatively low-low and relatively high-high) and two groups with unaligned levels (i.e., relatively low-moderate and relatively high-moderate), respectively. Both groups with relatively high fitness scores were found to spend significantly more time in organized sports (M = 2.01 h and 2.29 h, respectively) than the two groups with relatively low fitness scores (M = 1.08 h and 0.98 h, respectively), irrespective of their enjoyment levels. Conclusion: Increasing physical fitness levels (especially among those children with suboptimal enjoyment levels) may lead to increased organized sports participation, while increased organized sports participation in its turn may lead to higher fitness levels. As such, participation in sports programs should be promoted in children of all age groups.

Through the Looking Glass: A Systematic Review of Longitudinal Evidence, Providing New Insight for Motor Competence and Health.

INTRODUCTION: In 2008, a conceptual model explaining the role of motor competence (MC) in children's physical activity (PA), weight status, perceived MC and health-related fitness was published. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of the current review was to systematically compile mediation, longitudinal and experimental evidence in support of this conceptual model. METHODS: This systematic review (registered with PROSPERO on 28 April 2020) was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) statement. Separate searches were undertaken for each pathway of interest (final search 8 November 2019) using CINAHL Complete, ERIC, Medline (OVID), PsycINFO, Web of Science Core Collection, Scopus and SportDiscus. Potential articles were initially identified through abstract and title checking (N = 585) then screened further and combined into one review (n = 152), with 43 articles identified for extraction. Studies needed to be original and peer reviewed, include typically developing children and adolescents first assessed between 2 and 18 years and objective assessment of gross MC and at least one other variable (i.e., PA, weight status, perceived MC, health-related fitness). PA included sport participation, but sport-specific samples were excluded. Longitudinal or experimental designs and cross-sectional mediated models were sought. Strength of evidence was calculated for each pathway in both directions for each domain (i.e., skill composite, object control and locomotor/coordination/stability) by dividing the proportion of studies indicating a significantly positive pathway in the hypothesised direction by the total associations examined for that pathway. Classifications were no association (0-33%), indeterminate/inconsistent (34-59%), or a positive '+' or negative ' - ' association (≥ 60%). The latter category was classified as strong evidence (i.e., ++or --) when four or more studies found an association. If the total number of studies in a domain of interest was three or fewer, this was considered insufficient evidence to make a determination. RESULTS: There was strong evidence in both directions for a negative association between MC and weight status. There was strong positive evidence for a pathway from MC to fitness and indeterminate evidence for the reverse. There was indeterminate evidence for a pathway from MC to PA and no evidence for the reverse pathway. There was insufficient evidence for the MC to perceived MC pathway. There was strong positive evidence for the fitness-mediated MC/PA pathway in both directions. There was indeterminate evidence for the perceived MC-mediated pathway from PA to MC and no evidence for the reverse. CONCLUSION: Bidirectional longitudinal associations of MC with weight status are consistent with the model authored by Stodden et al. (Quest 2008;60(2):290-306, 2008). However, to test the whole model, the field needs robust longitudinal studies across childhood and adolescence that include all variables in the model, have multiple time points and account for potential confounding factors. Furthermore, experimental studies that examine change in MC relative to change in the other constructs are needed. TRIAL REGISTRATIONS: PROSPERO ID# CRD42020155799.

Differences in Weight Status and Autonomous Motivation towards Sports among Children with Various Profiles of Motor Competence and Organized Sports Participation.

This study aimed (1) to identify profiles in children based on actual motor competence (AMC), perceived motor competence (PMC), and organized sports participation (OSP), and (2) to examine differences among these profiles in weight status as well as autonomous motivation towards sports. Children's (N = 206; 112 boys; Mage = 10.83 ± 0.92 years) AMC, PMC, OSP, weight status, and autonomous motivation towards sports were measured using validated assessment tools. Cluster analyses identified three profiles with completely convergent levels of AMC, PMC, and OSP and three profiles with partially convergent levels. Children in the convergent profiles with average to high levels of AMC, PMC, and OSP had the most optimal profile, as they combined a healthier weight status with elevated levels of autonomous motivation, while the opposite was true for children with low levels on all three cluster-variables. Partially convergent profiles showed that AMC and PMC appear crucial for weight status, as profiles with relatively low levels of AMC and PMC had the highest weight status, independent of their OSP levels. Overall, the findings highlight the importance of promoting AMC, PMC, and OSP simultaneously to help children in achieving a healthy weight status and being autonomously motivated towards OSP.

Reconceptualizing and Operationalizing Seefeldt's Proficiency Barrier: Applications and Future Directions.

In 1980, Seefeldt introduced the concept of a motor skill "proficiency barrier" that provides a conceptual basis for understanding the importance of a motor skill barrier as it relates to critical public health initiatives. While the intent of Seefeldt's proficiency barrier hypothesis had great potential to advance the field of motor development, the notion of a proficiency barrier was not empirically tested. Instead, this concept lay dormant for several decades. The purpose of this paper was to expand upon Seefeldt's proficiency barrier concept in greater detail by addressing the following questions: (1) what constitutes a motor proficiency barrier? (2) how do we assess/measure the existence of a proficiency barrier? and (3) how do we break through the proficiency barrier in order to maximize the likelihood of participation in health-enhancing levels of physical activity later on in life? We conclude with a future research suggestion to explore the existence of the proficiency barrier.

The Relationship Between Actual and Perceived Motor Competence in Children, Adolescents and Young Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Actual and perceived motor competence are important correlates of various health-related behaviors. As such, numerous studies have examined the association between both constructs in children and adolescents. OBJECTIVES: The first aim of this review and meta-analysis was to systematically examine, analyze and summarize the scientific evidence on the relationship between actual and perceived motor competence (and by extension more general physical self-perception) in children, adolescents and young adults with typical and atypical development. The second aim was to examine several a priori determined potential moderators (i.e., age, sex, and developmental status of study participants, as well as level of alignment between measurement instruments) of the relationship between actual motor competence and perceived motor competence/physical self-perception. DESIGN: This systematic review was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) statement and was registered with PROSPERO on August 21st 2017. DATA SOURCES: A systematic literature search of five electronic databases (i.e., MEDLINE, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science, PsycINFO and EMBASE) with no date restrictions was conducted. ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA FOR SELECTING STUDIES: Eligibility criteria included (1) a study sample of youth aged 3-24 years, (2) an assessment of actual motor competence and perceived motor competence/physical self-perception, and (3) a report of the association between both, using a cross-sectional, longitudinal, or experimental design. Only original articles published in peer-reviewed journals with at least the title and abstract in English were considered. ANALYSES: Meta-analyses were conducted by type of actual motor competence (i.e., overall motor competence, locomotor, object control, stability/balance and sport-specific competence) through univariate and multivariable random-effects meta-regression and clustered random-effects meta-regression models. RESULTS: Of the 1643 articles screened, 87 were included for the qualitative review, while 69 remained for the final meta-analyses. All included studies had some risk of bias with only 15% meeting five of the six examined criteria. Significant (p < 0.001) pooled effects were found for overall motor competence (N = 54; r = 0.25; 95% CI [0.20, 0.29]), locomotor (N = 45; r = 0.19; 95% CI [0.13, 0.25]), object control (N = 50; r = 0.22; 95% CI [0.17, 0.27]), stability/balance (N = 8; r = 0.21; 95% CI [0.12, 0.30]), and sport-specific competence (N = 8; r = 0.46; 95% CI [0.28, 0.61]). None of the hypothesized moderators significantly influenced the relationship between actual motor competence and perceived motor competence/physical self-perception. CONCLUSIONS: The strength of the association between actual motor competence and perceived motor competence/physical self-perception in youth is low to moderate, with current data demonstrating that the strength of association does not differ by age, sex, developmental status, or alignment between measurement instruments. However, this review highlights the lack of clarity on the relationship between actual motor competence and perceived motor competence/physical self-perception. Future research should address issues surrounding the design of studies and measurement of actual motor competence and perceived motor competence/physical self-perception as well as explore other potential confounding variables (i.e., product- versus process-oriented assessments, race, culture) that might affect the relationship between these two constructs.

The Effect of the eHealth Intervention 'MyPlan 1.0' on Physical Activity in Adults Who Visit General Practice: A Quasi-Experimental Trial.

Physical inactivity is one of the major risk factors for poor health in the world. Therefore, effective interventions that promote physical activity are needed. Hence, we developed an eHealth intervention for adults, i.e., 'MyPlan 1.0', which includes self-regulation techniques for behaviour change. This study examined the effect of 'MyPlan 1.0' on physical activity (PA) levels in general practice. 615 adults (≥18 years) were recruited in 19 Flemish general practices, for the intervention group (n = 328) or for the wait-list control group (n = 183). Participants in the intervention group received the web-based intervention 'MyPlan 1.0' and were prompted to discuss their personal advice/action plan with their general practitioner. Participants in the wait-list control group only received general advice from the website. Self-reported physical activity was assessed with the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) at baseline and after one month. A three-level (general practice, adults, time) regression analysis was conducted in MLwiN. Significant intervention effects were found for total PA and moderate to vigorous PA with an increase for the intervention group compared to a decrease in the control condition. However, there was a high dropout rate in the intervention group (76%) and the wait-list control group (57%). Our self-regulation intervention was effective in increasing physical activity levels in adults. Future studies should consider strategies to prevent the large dropout from participants.

Identifying a motor proficiency barrier for meeting physical activity guidelines in children.

OBJECTIVES: This study examined the existence of a threshold level (proficiency barrier) of actual motor competence (MC) below which a child is not likely to attain 60min of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) per day. DESIGN: A cross-sectional study. METHODS: Actual MC was assessed in 326 children (48.5% boys; age=9.50±1.24years) using the Test of Gross Motor Development-2; MVPA was measured with ActiGraph GT3X+accelerometers. Perceived MC, included as a potential mediating variable, was assessed with the Self-Perception Profile for Children. Binary logistic (mediation) regression analyses controlling for sex and a chi-squared test were used to gain insight into the relationship between (the levels of) actual MC and the percentage of children meeting the MVPA guideline. RESULTS: Actual MC significantly predicted the percentage of children meeting the guideline (B=.03, SE=.01, p<.001), even when controlling for sex. Perceived MC did not mediate this relationship. Children with high actual MC (65-100 percentile) were 2.46 (p=.003) times more likely to meet the guideline than children with low actual MC (0-27 percentile). CONCLUSIONS: The present study demonstrates the potential impact of low MC on children's MVPA levels and suggests evidence for the existence of a proficiency barrier for meeting MVPA guidelines. Almost 90% of the children whose actual MC is below the 'average' threshold do not meet the MVPA guideline. As more children with higher levels of actual MC meet the guideline than their less competent peers, it is crucial to provide opportunities to sufficiently develop children's actual MC.

Configurations of actual and perceived motor competence among children: Associations with motivation for sports and global self-worth.

The present study used a person-centred approach to examine whether different profiles based on actual and perceived motor competence exist in elementary school children. Multilevel regression analyses were conducted to explore how children with different motor competence-based profiles might differ in their autonomous motivation for sports and global self-worth. Validated questionnaires were administered to 161 children (40% boys; age=8.82±0.66years) to assess their perceived motor competence, global self-worth, and motivation for sports. Actual motor competence was measured with the Körperkoordinationstest für Kinder. Cluster analyses identified four motor competence-based profiles: two groups were characterized by corresponding levels of actual and perceived motor competence (i.e., low-low and high-high) and two groups were characterized by divergent levels of actual and perceived motor competence (i.e., high-low and low-high). Children in the low-low and high-low group displayed significantly lower levels of autonomous motivation for sports and lower levels of global self-worth than children in the low-high and high-high group. These findings emphasize that fostering children's perceived motor competence might be crucial to improve their motivation for sports and their global self-worth. Teachers and instructors involved in physical education and youth sports should thus focus on both actual and perceived motor competence.

Associations among Elementary School Children's Actual Motor Competence, Perceived Motor Competence, Physical Activity and BMI: A Cross-Sectional Study.

BACKGROUND: Positive associations between motor competence and physical activity have been identified by means of variable-centered analyses. To expand the understanding of these associations, this study used a person-centered approach to investigate whether different combinations (i.e., profiles) of actual and perceived motor competence exist (aim 1); and to examine differences in physical activity levels (aim 2) and weight status (aim 3) among children with different motor competence-based profiles. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Children's (N = 361; 180 boys = 50%; Mage = 9.50±1.24yrs) actual motor competence was measured with the Test of Gross Motor Development-2 and their perceived motor competence via the Self Perception Profile for Children. We assessed physical activity via accelerometers; height through stadiometers, and weight through scales. Cluster analyses (aim 1) and MANCOVAs (aim 2 & 3) were used to analyze the data. RESULTS: The analysis generated two predictable groups: one group displaying relatively high levels of both actual (M TGMD-2 percentile = 42.54, SD = 2.33) and perceived motor competence (M = 3.42, SD = .37; high-high), and one group with relatively low levels of both (M percentile = 9.71, SD = 3.21; M PMC = 2.52, SD = .35; low-low). One additional group was also identified as having relatively low levels of actual motor competence (M percentile = 4.22, SD = 2.85) but relatively high levels of perceived motor competence (M = 3.52, SD = .30; low-high). The high-high group demonstrated higher daily physical activity (M = 48.39±2.03) and lower BMI (M = 18.13±.43) than the low-low group (MMVPA = 37.93±2.01; MBMI = 20.22±.42). The low-high group had similar physical activity-levels as the low-low group (M = 36.21±2.18) and did not significantly differ in BMI (M = 19.49±.46) from the other two groups. CONCLUSIONS: A combination of high actual and perceived motor competence is related to higher physical activity and lower weight status. It is thus recommended to expand health interventions in children with components that foster the development of both actual and perceived motor competence. Health professionals should furthermore pay sufficient attention to endorsing children's actual and perceived motor competence.

Identifying profiles of actual and perceived motor competence among adolescents: associations with motivation, physical activity, and sports participation.

The present study identified adolescents' motor competence (MC)-based profiles (e.g., high actual and low perceived MC), and accordingly investigated differences in motivation for physical education (PE), physical activity (PA) levels, and sports participation between profiles by using regression analyses. Actual MC was measured with the Körperkoordinationstest für Kinder. Adolescents (n = 215; 66.0% boys; mean age = 13.64 ± .58 years) completed validated questionnaires to assess perceived MC, motivation for PE, PA-levels, and sports participation. Actual and perceived MC were only moderately correlated and cluster analyses identified four groups. Two groups of overestimators (low - overestimation, average - overestimation) were identified (51%), who particularly displayed better motivation for PE when compared to their peers who accurately estimated themselves (low - accurate, average - accurate). Moreover, adolescents with low actual MC, but high perceived MC were significantly more active than adolescents with low actual MC who accurately estimated themselves. Results pointed in the same direction for organised sports participation. Underestimators were not found in the current sample, which is positive as underestimation might negatively influence adolescents' motivation to achieve and persist in PA and sports. In conclusion, results emphasise that developing perceived MC, especially among adolescents with low levels of actual MC, seems crucial to stimulate motivation for PE, and engagement in PA and sports.

Extracurricular school-based sports as a motivating vehicle for sports participation in youth: a cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Extracurricular school-based sports are considered to be an ideal means of reaching children who are not active in community sports. The purposes of this study were to examine the extent to which pupils not engaging in community sports do participate in extracurricular school-based sports, and to assess whether extracurricular school-based sports participants are more physically active and/or more autonomously motivated towards sports in daily life than children who do not participate in extracurricular school-based sports. METHODS: One thousand forty-nine children (53.7% boys; M age = 11.02 years, SD = 0.02) out of 60 classes from 30 Flemish elementary schools, with an extracurricular school-based sports offer, completed validated questionnaires to assess physical activity (Flemish Physical Activity Questionnaire) and motivation (Behavioral Regulations in Physical Education Questionnaire). Multilevel regression analyses were conducted to examine the data generated from these questionnaires. RESULTS: More than three quarters of the children (76%) reported participating in extracurricular school-based sports during the current school year and 73% reported engaging in organized community sports. Almost two third of the children (65%) not participating in community sports stated that they did participate in extracurricular school-based sports. Extracurricular school-based sports participants were significantly more physically active than children not participating in extracurricular school-based sports (ß = 157.62, p < 0.001). Significant three-way interactions (sex × extracurricular school-based sports participation × community sports participation) were found for autonomous motivation, with boys engaging in extracurricular school-based sports but not in community sports being significantly more autonomously motivated towards sports than boys not engaging in community or extracurricular school-based sports (ß = 0.58, p = 0.003). Such differences were not noted among girls. CONCLUSIONS: If extracurricular school-based sports are offered at school, the vast majority of elementary school children participate. Although extracurricular school-based sports attract many children already engaging in community sports, they also reach almost two third of the children who do not participate in community sports but who might also be optimally motivated towards sports. As children participating in extracurricular school-based sports are more physically active than children who do not participate, extracurricular school-based sports participation can be considered to contribute to an active lifestyle for these participating children.