Socioecological drivers of injuries in female and male rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta).

Competition over access to resources, such as food and mates, is believed to be one of the major costs associated with group living. Two socioecological factors suggested to predict the intensity of competition are group size and the relative abundance of sexually active individuals. However, empirical evidence linking these factors to injuries and survival costs is scarce. Here, we leveraged 10 years of data from free-ranging rhesus macaques where injuries inflicted by conspecifics are associated with a high mortality risk. We tested if group size and adult sex ratio predicted the occurrence of injuries and used data on physical aggression to contextualise these results. We found that males were less likely to be injured when living in larger groups, potentially due to advantages in intergroup encounters. Females, instead, had higher injury risk when living in larger groups but this was not explained by within-group aggression among females. Further, male-biased sex ratios predicted a weak increase in injury risk in females and were positively related to male-female aggression, indicating that male coercion during mating competition may be a cause of injuries in females. Overall, our results provide insights into sex differences in the fitness-related costs of competition and empirical evidence for long-standing predictions on the evolution of group living.

Kinship composition in mammals.

Understanding the evolution of group-living and cooperation requires information on who animals live and cooperate with. Animals can live with kin, non-kin or both, and kinship structure can influence the benefits and costs of group-living and the evolution of within-group cooperation. One aspect of kinship structure is kinship composition, i.e. a group-level attribute of the presence of kin and/or non-kin dyads in groups. Despite its putative importance, the kinship composition of mammalian groups has yet to be characterized. Here, we use the published literature to build an initial kinship composition dataset in mammals, laying the groundwork for future work in the field. In roughly half of the 18 species in our sample, individuals lived solely with same-sex kin, and, in the other half, individuals lived with related and unrelated individuals of the same sex. These initial results suggest that it is not rare for social mammals to live with unrelated individuals of the same sex, highlighting the importance of considering indirect and direct fitness benefits as co-drivers of the evolution of sociality. We hope that our initial dataset and insights will spur the study of kinship structure and sociality towards new exciting avenues.

Thermal imaging reveals social monitoring during social feeding in wild chimpanzees.

Understanding the affective lives of animals has been a long-standing challenge in science. Recent technological progress in infrared thermal imaging has enabled researchers to monitor animals' physiological states in real-time when exposed to ecologically relevant situations, such as feeding in the company of others. During social feeding, an individual's physiological states are likely to vary with the nature of the resource and perceptions of competition. Previous findings in chimpanzees have indicated that events perceived as competitive cause decreases in nasal temperatures, whereas the opposite was observed for cooperative interactions. Here, we tested how food resources and audience structure impacted on how social feeding events were perceived by wild chimpanzees. Overall, we found that nasal temperatures were lower when meat was consumed as compared to figs, consistent with the idea that social feeding on more contested resources is perceived as more dangerous and stressful. Nasal temperatures were significant affected by interactions between food type and audience composition, in particular the number of males, their dominance status, and their social bond status relative to the subject, while no effects for the presence of females were observed. Our findings suggest that male chimpanzees closely monitor and assess their social environment during competitive situations, and that infrared imaging provides an important complement to access psychological processes beyond observable social behaviours. This article is part of the theme issue 'Cognition, communication and social bonds in primates'.

Bonds of bros and brothers: Kinship and social bonding in postdispersal male macaques.

Group-living animals often maintain a few very close affiliative relationships-social bonds-that can buffer them against many of the inevitable costs of gregariousness. Kinship plays a central role in the development of such social bonds. The bulk of research on kin biases in sociality has focused on philopatric females, who typically live in deeply kin-structured systems, with matrilineal dominance rank inheritance and life-long familiarity between kin. Closely related males, in contrast, are usually not close in rank or familiar, which offers the opportunity to test the importance of kinship per se in the formation of social bonds. So far, however, kin biases in male social bonding have only been tested in philopatric males, where familiarity remains a confounding factor. Here, we studied bonds between male Assamese macaques, a species in which males disperse from their natal groups and in which male bonds are known to affect fitness. Combining extensive behavioural data on 43 adult males over a 10-year period with DNA microsatellite relatedness analyses, we find that postdispersal males form stronger relationships with the few close kin available in the group than with the average nonkin. However, males form the majority of their bonds with nonkin and may choose nonkin over available close kin to bond with. Our results show that kinship facilitates bond formation, but is not a prerequisite for it, which suggests that strong bonds are not restricted to kin in male mammals and that animals cooperate for both direct and indirect fitness benefits.