Knowledge, attitudes and application of nutrition assessments by the veterinary health care team in small animal practice.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the impact of the WSAVA Global Nutrition Committee's work in promoting nutrition as the fifth vital assessment and enhancing knowledge of nutrition. Further objectives were to ascertain use of existing Global Nutrition Committee assessment tools, identify potential new tools and determine which members of the veterinary health care team are responsible for carrying out nutrition assessments, planning and intervention in practice. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A 16-question online questionnaire on the awareness, use and frequency of nutritional assessment was completed by 2740 veterinary health care team members. Statistical association was tested between the reported frequency of nutritional assessment in practice and the likely establishment of normal dietary regime, calculation of energy requirements and creation of nutritional plans. RESULTS: Most respondents (95%) currently had responsibility for providing small animal nutrition education, yet only 27% were aware of the WSAVA guidelines. Over half (64%) recognised nutritional evaluation as the fifth vital assessment. Only 4% consistently used WSAVA tools to perform a systematic nutritional assessment. Veterinarians and veterinary nurses/technicians were the most frequent source of nutritional advice in practice, with the consultation recognised as the most important contact point with clients. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Awareness of nutritional assessment is apparent, yet implementation in practice is inconsistent. These findings will help the WSAVA Global Nutrition Committee prioritise future activities to support the veterinary health care team and pet owners with nutrition-related knowledge, tools and resources.

Towards Canine Rabies Elimination in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa: Assessment of Health Economic Data.

Rabies remains a significant problem throughout much of the developing world. An estimated 69 000 people die annually from exposure to rabies. Most of these deaths are the result of being bitten by a rabid dog. Mass vaccination campaigns targeting dogs have been implemented around the world in an attempt to control or eliminate canine rabies. We analysed the vaccination and cost data for a campaign in the KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa; we found that the cost per dog vaccinated to be $6.61 for mass campaigns and $5.41 for local campaigns. We also estimated the cost of human post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP). The cost of PEP is approximately $64.50 on average per patient, and $333 on average for the 9% of patients who receive RIG. We also found that the districts that vaccinated the most dogs per capita experienced the highest rates of human treatment and thus had the highest PEP costs.

The elevated serum urea:creatinine ratio in canine babesiosis in South Africa is not of renal origin.

Pigmented serum, usually due to free haemoglobin and/or bilirubin, is a common finding in dogs with babesiosis, resulting in interference with all biochemical tests that rely on photochemistry. This is particularly true of urea and creatinine determinations, complicating the diagnosis of acute renal failure, which is a serious complication of babesiosis. A disproportionately raised serum urea concentration of unknown origin occurs in severely anaemic canine babesiosis patients and gives rise to an increased serum urea:creatinine ratio. The assay for cystatin-C, an excellent measure of glomerular filtration rate, is unaffected by free serum haemoglobin, and due to its different intrinsic origins, is free of influence by the metabolic derangements and organ pathology, other than renal disease, encountered in canine babesiosis. Serum cystatin-C was used to compare the concentrations of serum urea and serum creatinine in dogs with the severely anaemic form of canine babesiosis as well as a canine babesiosis-free reference group. Mean serum urea and mean serum urea:creatinine ratio were significantly elevated in the babesia-infected group relative to the reference population in this study. Mean serum creatinine and mean serum cystatin-C were within the reference ranges. Therefore an elevated urea:creatinine ratio in canine babesiosis in the presence of a normal serum creatinine concentration is considered to be caused by an elevated serum urea concentration and is most likely of non-renal origin. Serum creatinine was therefore as specific a measure of renal function as serum cystatin-C in canine babesiosis in this study. The sensitivity of serum creatinine as a measure of renal function was not established by this study. Serum urea, however, proved to be of little use compared to serum cystatin-C and serum creatinine. Serum urea should therefore not be used to diagnose renal failure in canine babesiosis.

Are urea and creatinine values reliable indicators of azotaemia in canine babesiosis?

Serum urea and creatinine are extensively used as parameters to screen for azotaemia. Their reciprocal plots roughly correlate with glomerular filtration rate (GFR). They are, however, subject to influence by non-renal factors and to increase their specificity they are often tested concurrently. In renal disease they are expected to behave similarly, with both parameters increasing as GFR decreases. Haemolysis, as it occurs in canine babesiosis, may cause non-renal elevations in serum urea, possibly due to ammonia loading. Furthermore, haemolysis with its related elevations in serum bilirubin and serum haemoglobin, may negatively bias the measurement of serum creatinine due to interference of these substances with the chemical analysis of serum creatinine. This negative bias occurs when the alkaline picrate method, or when direct enzymatic methods based on the measurement of hydrogen peroxide, are used. In order to investigate the significance of these perturbations in canine babesiosis, paired values of serum urea and serum creatinine from Babesia canis-negative, non-haemolysis dogs (Group 1), were used to establish a relationship between urea and creatinine over a range of azotaemia by linear regression analysis. This relationship was then used to predict serum creatinine values from actual serum urea values in B. canis-positive dogs (Group 2). The mean of the predicted serum creatinine values for Group 2 (237.03 micromol/l) was then compared with the mean of the actual serum creatinine values for Group 2 (131.31 micromol/l). For Group 2, the mean actual serum creatinine demonstrated a significant negative bias relative to the mean predicted creatinine value. There was also a higher correlation between serum urea and serum creatinine in Group 1 than in Group 2. These findings may have been caused by either nonrenal elevations of serum urea values or by interference with the measurement of serum creatinine. Therefore, although it is possible that some Group 2 dogs with B. canis with high serum urea and normal, low, or zero values for serum creatinine were not azotaemic, it is also possible that other Group 2 dogs with these biochemical findings did in fact have azotaemia. This study concluded that urea and creatinine do not behave in a similar and predictable manner over a range of azotaemia in canine babesiosis and are therefore not ideally suited for the detection of renal disease in this clinical setting.

Primary ciliary dyskinesia in a Staffordshire bull terrier.

Primary ciliary dyskinesia (PCD) is a diverse group of inherited structural and functional abnormalities of the respiratory and other cilia, which results in recurrent respiratory tract infections. Primary ciliary dyskinesia was diagnosed in a 14-week old Staffordshire bull terrier that had a history of respiratory disease from 7 weeks of age. Pneumonia was diagnosed on thoracic radiographs and transtracheal aspirate. Transmission electron microscopy of the bronchi and trachea indicated the presence of both primary and secondary ciliary dyskinesia. The most prominent primary defects consisted of absent inner dyneim arms, absent radial spokes and absence of the central microtubules. These defects accounted for 62% of the total number of cross-sections screened. Non-specific ciliary abnormalities encountered most often were compound cilia, swollen cilia, addition/deletion of peripheral doublets and disorganised axonemes (26%). To the authors' knowledge, this is the first case of PCD described in the Staffordshire bull terrier and the first report of PCD in South Africa.

Cerebral cysticercosis in a cat.

The metacestode of Taenia solium, Cysticercus cellulosae, was recovered from the brain of a cat showing central nervous clinical signs ante mortem. This is the first record of cerebral cysticercosis in a cat in South Africa.