Plant dependence on rhizobia for nitrogen influences induced plant defenses and herbivore performance.

Symbiotic rhizobia induce many changes in legumes that could affect aboveground interactions with herbivores. We explored how changing the intensity of Bradyrhizobium japonicum, as modulated by soil nitrogen (N) levels, influenced the interaction between soybean (Glycine max) and herbivores of different feeding guilds. When we employed a range of fertilizer applications to manipulate soil N, plants primarily dependent on rhizobia for N exhibited increased root nodulation and higher levels of foliar ureides than plants given N fertilizer; yet all treatments maintained similar total N levels. Soybean podworm (Helicoverpa zea) larvae grew best on plants with the highest levels of rhizobia but, somewhat surprisingly, preferred to feed on high-N-fertilized plants when given a choice. Induction of the defense signaling compound jasmonic acid (JA) by H. zea feeding damage was highest in plants primarily dependent on rhizobia. Differences in rhizobial dependency on soybean did not appear to affect interactions with the phloem-feeding soybean aphid (Aphis glycines). Overall, our results suggest that rhizobia association can affect plant nutritional quality and the induction of defense signaling pathways and that these effects may influence herbivore feeding preferences and performance-though such effects may vary considerably for different classes of herbivores.

Effects of genetic modification on herbivore-induced volatiles from maize.

Large-scale implementation of transgenic crop varieties raises concerns about possible nontarget effects on other organisms. This study examines the effects of genetic modification on plant volatile production and its potential impact on arthropod population dynamics. We compared herbivore-induced volatile emissions from Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner (Bt) maize plants to those from a nontransformed isoline following exposure to various types of leaf damage. When equal numbers of Helicoverpa zea Boddie (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) larvae fed on Bt and non-Bt maize, volatile emissions were significantly lower in the transgenic plants, which also exhibited less leaf damage. When damage levels were controlled by adding more larvae to Bt plants, the plants' volatile emissions increased but displayed significant differences from those of nontransgenic plants. Significantly higher amounts of linalool, beta-myrcene, and geranyl acetate were released from transgenic maize than from non-Bt plants. Manipulating the duration of feeding by individual larvae to produce similar damage patterns resulted in similar volatile profiles for Bt and non-Bt plants. Controlling damage levels more precisely by mechanically wounding leaves and applying larval regurgitant likewise resulted in similar emission patterns for Bt and non-Bt maize. Overall, changes in the herbivore-induced volatile profiles of Bt maize appeared to be a consequence of altered larval feeding behavior rather than of changes in biochemical plant defense pathways. The implications of these findings for understanding the impacts of plant-mediated cues on pest and natural enemy behavior in transgenic crop systems are discussed.