Hydatidosis of camel (Camelus dromedarius) at Jijiga municipal abattoir, Eastern Ethiopia: prevalence, associated risk factors and financial implication.

A cross-sectional study was conducted from November 2010 to May 2011 to estimate the prevalence of camel hydatidosis, associated risk factors and financial loss in Jijiga municipal abattoir, Somali Regional State, Eastern Ethiopia. Accordingly, of the total 400 inspected camel, 92 (23 %) camels and 109 organs were positive for hydatid cyst with the highest proportion recorded in lung (56 %) followed by liver (33.9 %), spleen (7.3 %) and kidneys (2.8 %). The prevalence of hydatidosis significantly varied among age categories (P < 0.05), sex (P < 0.05) and body condition score (P < 0.05) of camels. Hence, there is higher likelihood for occurrence of camel hydatidosis among the older age groups (OR 1.8, 95 % CI 1.2, 3.3), in female camels (OR 2.8, 95 % CI 1.7, 4.7) and in poor body conditioned camels (OR 4.1, 95 % CI 2.2, 7.9) than younger camels, males and camels with good body condition score, respectively. Of the total 288 examined cysts for fertility and viability, 59.7 % (172/288) were fertile while the rest 24.0 % (69/288) cysts were sterile. Of the 172 fertile cysts 69.8 % (n = 120) were viable and 30.2 % (n = 52) were non-viable. The rest 16.3 % (47/288) cysts were found dead. It was also observed that the pulmonary and hepatic cysts had fertility rate of 63.7 % (116/182) and 57.4 % (54/94), respectively. The total annual direct financial loss recorded in this study as result of organs condemnation due to hydatid cyst, was 12,147.75 Ethiopian birrs ($714.57 or $7.77/camel). If this value could be extrapolated to the infected camel population of the region, financial loss due to hydatidosis could be enormous. In conclusion, this study showed the importance of hydatidosis and the associated direct financial loss due to the condemnation of organs affected by hydatid cyst in the study area.

Tolerance and resistance to a nematode challenge are not always mutually exclusive.

The relationship between the manifestations of tolerance (a host's ability to reduce the impact of a given level of pathogens) and resistance (a host's ability to clear pathogens) has been assumed to be an antagonistic one. Here we tested the hypothesis that mice from strains more resistant to intestinal nematodes will experience reduced tolerance compared with less resistant mice. Three inbred strains of mice were used: C57BL/6 mice have been characterised as susceptible, whereas BALB/c and NIH mice have been characterised as resistant to Heligmosomoides bakeri infection. Mice of each strain were either parasitised with a single dose of 250 L3H. bakeri (n=10) in water or were sham-infected with water (n=10). Body weight, food intake and worm egg output were recorded regularly throughout the experiment. Forty-two days p.i. mice were euthanised and organ weights, eggs in colon and worm counts were determined. C57BL/6 mice showed significantly greater worm egg output (P<0.001), eggs in colon (P<0.05) and female worm fecundity (P<0.05) compared with NIH and BALB/c mice. Parasitised BALB/c mice grew more whilst parasitised C57BL/6 mice grew less than their sham-infected counterparts during the first 2 weeks post-challenge (P=0.05). Parasitism significantly increased liver, spleen, small intestine and caecum weights (P<0.001) but reduced carcass weight (P<0.01). Average daily weight gain and worm numbers were positively correlated in NIH mice (P=0.05); however, the relationship was reversed when carcass weight was used as a measure for tolerance. BALB/c mice did not appear to suffer from the consequences of parasitism, with carcass weight similar in all animals. Our hypothesis that strains more resistant to the H. bakeri infection are less tolerant compared with less resistant strains is rejected, as the two resistant strains showed variable tolerance. Thus, tolerance and resistance to an intestinal nematode infection are not always mutually exclusive.

Ingestion of indigestible foreign materials by free grazing ruminants in Amhara Region, Ethiopia.

Ruminants slaughtered in Bahir-Dar, northern Ethiopia, were studied to estimate the prevalence and types of foreign bodies in the rumen and reticulum. Of the 400 cattle, 320 sheep, and 320 goats examined between November 2011 and May 2012, 41.8, 20.6 and 11.9 %, respectively, contained one or more types of foreign bodies. The prevalence of foreign bodies was significantly (P < 0.05) higher (i) in cattle than in sheep and goats, (ii) in cattle in poor body condition than those in good condition, and (iii) in the rumen than in the reticulum. The most commonly encountered materials were plastics, which resulted from the widespread use of plastic bags and improper waste disposal. Other materials found were cloth, rope, metal, and leather. The study demonstrated that ruminants in the area are ingesting various types of indigestible foreign bodies, which can hamper their health and productivity. To avert the problem, collaborative intervention schemes need to be applied involving professionals, policy makers, livestock keepers, and environmental activists.

Ethno-medicinal study of plants used for treatment of human and livestock ailments by traditional healers in South Omo, Southern Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Plants have traditionally been used for treatment of human and livestock ailments in Ethiopia by different ethnic and social groups. However, this valuable source of knowledge is not adequately documented, which impedes their widespread use, evaluation and validation. Here, we recorded indigenous knowledge and standard practices for human and livestock disease control, of three ethnic groups (Aari, Maale and Bena-Tsemay) in South Omo Zone of Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Regional State, Ethiopia. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was carried out using a semi-structured questionnaire to document knowledge of 50 traditional healers (40 male and 10 female) in medicinal plant use for treatment of human and livestock ailments. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze and summarize the ethno-botanical data. RESULTS: Ninety-one plants, with claimed medicinal properties against a total of 34 human and livestock ailments, were reported and botanically identified as belonging to 57 genera and 33 plant families. Most of the plant species reported belonged to one of seven major families: Lamiaceae, Solanaceae, Menispermiaceae, Fabaceae, Asteraceae, Plumbaginaceae and Geraniaceae. Woody plants (shrubs 21% and trees 29%) were the major growth form used, whilst roots (40%) and leaves (35%) were the major plant parts used in the study areas. Healers mostly practice oral administration of plant preparations (65%). Multiple medicinal plants were cited against particular ailments, and mixing of two or more different medicinal plants (14.3%) against a single ailment was also commonly reported. CONCLUSION: This study showed that traditional medicine, mainly involving the use of medicinal plants, is playing a significant role in meeting the primary healthcare needs of the three ethnic groups. Acceptance of traditional medicine and limited access to modern healthcare facilities could be considered as the main factors for the continuation of the practice. Documented knowledge of the traditional healers can be used to support the country's human and livestock health care system and improve lives and livelihoods. Information generated will be used in future studies to validate bioactivity of selected medicinal plants used by traditional healers, so to increase their acceptability in health care systems both nationally and internationally.

Major causes of organs and carcass condemnation in small ruminants slaughtered at Luna Export Abattoir, Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia.

A retrospective study and active abattoir survey were conducted from December 2009 to April 2010 to determine the major causes of organs and carcasses condemnation and to estimate the associated direct financial loss at Luna Export Abattoir, Central Ethiopia. The active abattoir survey was conducted on 674 goats and 451 sheep (n=1125) and three years (2007, 2008 and 2009), retrospective data of 718,395 sheep and goats were also collected. From the retrospective data it was observed that liver was the most frequently condemned organ with condemnation rate of 32.4%, 46.7% and 70.5%, respectively. The major causes of condemnation for liver, lung, heart, kidneys and brain were cirrhosis (12.3%, 17.0% and 12.8%), pneumonia (6.6%, 11.6% and 12.5%), pericarditis (0.6%, 0.8% and 0.4%), nephritis (0.6%, 0.8% and 1.2%) and abscess (0.005%, 0.007% and 0.012%), respectively. Consequently, the overall direct financial loss from organs and carcass condemnation during the three years was estimated to be 22,993,591 Ethiopian birr (ETB) or 1,323,257 United State Dollar (USD). On the other hand, detailed post mortem inspection of liver, heart, kidneys, tongue, brain and carcass during the active abattoir survey revealed that higher losses were caused mainly due to cirrhosis (89.3 kg, 2998 ETB), pericarditis (5.4 kg, 308 ETB), faulty evisceration (8.4 kg, 472 ETB), calcification (8.4 kg, 469 ETB) and Coenurus cerebralis (4.3 kg, 243 ETB) and poor carcass condition (bonny carcass) (1390 kg, 78,500 ETB), respectively. Other causes of condemnation were also recorded and totally, about 110,361 ETB (6351 USD) was lost only from organs and carcasses condemnation during the active abattoir survey. In conclusion, this study identified the major causes of organs and carcass condemnation in Luna Export Abattoir and estimated the associated direct financial losses.

Condensed tannins from Sesbania sesban and Desmodium intortum as a means of Haemonchus contortus control in goats.

Two experiments were conducted to determine whether the proanthocyanidin (condensed tannin)-containing forage legumes Desmodium intortum cv Greenleaf and Sesbania sesban (accession 15019) could be integrated into a feeding management strategy as a means of Haemonchus contortus control in goats. The anthelmintic effects of condensed tannin extracts from the two legumes on H. contortus L(3) larvae were studied in an in vitro larval migration inhibition system. The extracts inhibited larval migration in a dose-dependent manner, and at concentrations from 1,000 µg/ml condensed tannin, the extract from D. intortum caused a significantly higher inhibition of larval migration than did the corresponding concentrations of the S. sesban extract (P < 0.01). Prolonged feeding of tanniniferous forage legumes showed that animals receiving D. intortum had the lowest total worm burden, the lowest female to male parasite ratio, the lowest number of eggs in the uterus of each female worm and the lowest per capita fecundity (P < 0.01). However, there was no change in the performance (weight gain) of parasite-infected goats probably due to incomplete removal of the parasite or prolonged confinement of goats in small pens, which calls for further investigation. However, since there is no single efficient method in control of parasites, based on the obtained data from this experiment, integrated feeding of D. intortum with other suitable method of parasite control is thus suggested.

Occurrence of mastitis and associated risk factors in lactating goats under pastoral management in Borana, Southern Ethiopia.

Mastitis prevalence and related risk factors were studied in 1,072 udder halves of 536 lactating goats from October, 2008 to February, 2009. Clinical and subclinical mastitis were prevalent in 4.3% (95% CI = 2.8, 6.5) and 11.2% (95% CI = 8.7, 14.3) of the studied animals, respectively, resulting in an overall prevalence of 15.5% (95% CI = 12.6, 18.9). Univariate analysis of the potential risk factors has depicted that mastitis was more prevalent in does with previous mastitis history, increased parity, poor body conditions, increased milk production, late lactation stage, long teat, and housed goats. Furthermore, prevalence was significantly higher (p < 0.05) during the wet period of October to November than the dry periods of January to February. No significant variations (p > 0.05) were observed in mastitis prevalence with udder tick infestation, mixing goat with sheep and flock size. With multivariable analysis, lactation stage, teat length, body condition, and season (wet months) have showed significant association with mastitis prevalence, and these factors maintained significant in the stepwise elimination of multivariable logistic regression model. As a result, does in late stage of lactation (OR = 4.3, 1.8, 10.4), poor body condition (OR = 5.0, 1.7, 10.0), long teats (OR = 2.2, 95% CI = 1.1, 4.2) and does examined in wet period were at higher risk of udder infections than early lactation, good body condition, short teat, and examined in dry period, respectively. The study showed occurrence of mastitis and associated risk factors in studied goats, which suggests the need for control intervention. Further investigations into pathogens involved in goat mastitis will optimize our knowledge of causative agents and control interventions.

Lungworm infection in small ruminants: prevalence and associated risk factors in Dessie and Kombolcha districts, northeastern Ethiopia.

A cross-sectional study was conducted from November 2008 to March 2009 to estimate the prevalence of lungworm infection and to investigate some of the risk factors associated with small ruminant lungworm infections in Dessie and Kombolcha districts, northeastern Ethiopia. Faecal samples were collected from randomly selected 404 animals (240 sheep and 164 goats) to examine first stage larvae (L(1)) using modified Baerman technique. One hundred and thirty eight animals (113 sheep and 25 goats) were also subjected to postmortem examination to detect the presence of adult lungworm parasites. The overall prevalence recorded by faecal and postmortem examinations were 36.9% and 62.3%, respectively. Prevalence of lungworm infection was significantly higher (OR=2.1, 95% CI=1.2, 3.5) in sheep (40.4%) than in goats (31.7%). The proportions of infection by Dictyocaulus filaria (D. filaria), Mullerius capillaris (M. capillaris) and mixed infection were 1.3% (3/240), 28.3% (68/240) and 10.8% (26/240) in sheep; and 20.1% (33/164) by M. capillaris and 11.6% (19/164) with mixed infection in goats. Animals above one year (OR=8.7, 95% CI=4.8, 15.6), non-dewormed animals (OR=10.4, 95% CI=5.6, 19.3) and those sampled during November (OR=3.6, 95% CI=1.5, 8.6) had higher odds of infection prevalence than animals in corresponding groups. The mean count of L(1) larvae of D. filaria and M. capillaris were 5.4 (95% CI=3.6, 7.3) and 39.3 (95% CI=33.7, 44.9) in ovine and 4.5 (95% CI=3.1, 5.8) and 34.1 (95% CI=27.2, 41.1) in caprine, respectively. The recorded average larval count of the two parasitic species varied significantly in both sheep and goats. This study showed high prevalence of lungworm infections which impairs the productivity of small ruminants, implying the need for control intervention.