A lipid anchor improves the protective effect of ectoine in inflammation.

Others and we have shown in several studies that the natural tetrahydropyrimidine ectoine protects mammalian cells and tissues against various stress factors including ischemia/reperfusion injury, UV-irradiation, and inflammation. Since little is known about the molecular mechanism of this protective effect, which was ascribed exclusively to an extracellular action of this small water-soluble molecule, we asked whether and how a hydrophobic anchor modulates the inflammation protective properties of ectoine. We therefore investigated the influence of ectoine and of its semi-synthetic derivative lauryl-ectoine on inflammation in RAW 264.7 macrophages and primary cultured rat intestinal smooth muscle (RISM) cells. Both, ectoine and lauryl-ectoine considerably decreased lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced interleukin (IL)- 1, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)- α, and cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 gene expression in macrophages as well as TNF-α- induced IL-1, IL-6 and COX-2 expression in RISM cells. This reduction of inflammatory agents was accompanied on the one hand by a significant decrease of nuclear translocation of nuclear factor (NF)-κB and on the other hand by a reduction of cellular ceramide content. Interestingly, lauryl- ectoine was much more active exerting its effect at about 10-fold lower concentrations than its natural counterpart. Note that ectoine was almost completely recovered in the medium whereas lauryl-ectoine was found to be cell-associated. Together our data indicate that a lipid anchor considerably improves a possible preventive and/or therapeutic implementation of ectoine in inflammatory processes.

Sphingosine-1-phosphate links glycosphingolipid metabolism to neurodegeneration via a calpain-mediated mechanism.

We have recently reported that the bioactive lipid sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P), usually signaling proliferation and anti-apoptosis induces neuronal death when generated by sphingosine-kinase2 and when accumulation due to S1P-lyase deficiency occurs. In the present study, we identify the signaling cascade involved in the neurotoxic effect of sphingoid-base phosphates. We demonstrate that the calcium-dependent cysteine protease calpain mediates neurotoxicity by induction of the endoplasmic reticulum stress-specific caspase cascade and activation of cyclin-dependent kinase5 (CDK5). The latter is involved in an abortive reactivation of the cell cycle and also enhances tau phosphorylation. Neuroanatomical studies in the cerebellum document for the first time that indeed neurons with abundant S1P-lyase expression are those, which degenerate first in S1P-lyase-deficient mice. We therefore propose that an impaired metabolism of glycosphingolipids, which are prevalent in the central nervous system, might be linked via S1P, their common catabolic intermediate, to neuronal death.

Reduced rates of axonal and dendritic growth in embryonic hippocampal neurones cultured from a mouse model of Sandhoff disease.

Sandhoff disease is a lysosomal storage disease in which ganglioside GM2 accumulates because of a defective beta-subunit of beta-hexosaminidase. This disease is characterized by neurological manifestations, although the pathogenic mechanisms leading from GM2 accumulation to neuropathology are largely unknown. We now examine the viability, development and rates of neurite growth of embryonic hippocampal neurones cultured from a mouse model of Sandhoff disease, the Hexb-/- mouse. GM2 was detected by metabolic labelling at low levels in wild type (Hexb+/+) neurones, and increased by approximately three-fold in Hexb-/- neurones. Hexb-/- hippocampal neurones were as viable as their wild type counterparts and, moreover, their developmental programme was unaltered because the formation of axons and of the minor processes which eventually become dendrites was similar in Hexb-/- and Hexb+/+ neurones. In contrast, once formed, a striking difference in the rate of axonal and minor process growth was observed, with changes becoming apparent after 3 days in culture and highly significant after 5 days in culture. Analysis of various parameters of axonal growth suggested that a key reason for the decreased rate of axonal growth was because of a decrease in the formation of collateral axonal branches, the major mechanism by which hippocampal axons elongate in culture. Thus, although the developmental programme with respect to axon and minor process formation and the viability of hippocampal neurones are unaltered, a significant decrease occurs in the rate of axonal and minor process growth in Hexb-/- neurones. These results appear to be in contrast to dorsal root ganglion neurones cultured from 1-month-old Sandhoff mice, in which cell survival is impaired but normal outgrowth of neurones occurs. The possible reasons for these differences are discussed.

Cell type specific localization of sphingomyelin biosynthesis.

We have studied the incorporation of [(14)C]serine and of [(3)H]sphingosine into sphingomyelin in the presence or absence of brefeldin A (BFA) in three different cell types. Administration of BFA (1 microgram/ml) to fibroblasts for 24 h increased the incorporation of label into sphingomyelin 1.5-3 fold compared with untreated controls. In contrast, BFA strongly decreased sphingomyelin biosynthesis (4-5 fold) in cerebellar neurons as well as in neuroblastoma cells. The effect of BFA on glycosphingolipid formation, however, was similar in all three cell types studied: an increased labeling of the precursor glycolipids GlcCer, LacCer, GM3 and GD3 was paralleled by a decreased formation of complex gangliosides, GM1, GD1a, GT1b and GQ1b. Our data therefore suggest that in neuronal cells sphingomyelin synthesis, like the formation of complex gangliosides, is localized primarily distal to the BFA block, in a post-Golgi compartment, most probably the trans-Golgi network, whereas in fibroblasts sphingomyelin biosynthesis is mainly localized prior to the BFA block, in the Golgi apparatus, as has been shown for LacCer, GlcCer, GM3 and GD3 synthases.

Production of ceramides causes apoptosis during early neural differentiation in vitro.

To investigate signal transduction pathways leading to apoptosis during the early phase of neurogenesis, we employed PCC7-Mz1 cells, which cease to proliferate and begin to differentiate into a stable pattern of neurons, astroglial cells, and fibroblasts upon incubation with retinoic acid (RA). As part of lineage determination, a sizable fraction of RA-treated cultures die by apoptosis. Applying natural long-chain C(16)-ceramides as well as membrane-permeable C(2)/C(6)-ceramide analogs caused apoptosis, whereas the biologically nonactive C(2)-dihydroceramide did not. Treating PCC7-Mz1 stem cells with a neutral sphingomyelinase or with the ceramidase inhibitor N-oleoylethanolamine elevated the endogenous ceramide levels and concomitantly induced apoptosis. Addition of RA caused an increase in ceramide levels within 3-5 h, which reached a maximum (up to 3.5-fold of control) between days 1 and 3 of differentiation. Differentiated PCC7-Mz1 cells did not respond with ceramide formation and apoptosis to RA treatment. The acidic sphingomyelinase contributed only weakly and the neutral Mg(2+)-dependent and Mg(2+)-independent sphingomyelinases not at all to the RA-mediated production of ceramides. However, ceramide increase was sensitive to the ceramide synthase inhibitor fumonisin B(1), suggesting a crucial role for the de novo synthesis pathway. Enzymatic assays revealed that ceramide synthase activity remained unaltered, whereas serine palmitoyltransferase (SPT), a key enzyme in ceramide synthesis, was activated approximately 2.5-fold by RA treatment. Activation of SPT seemed to be mediated via a post-translational mechanism because levels of the mRNAs coding for the two SPT subunits were unaffected. Expression of marker proteins shows that ceramide regulates apoptosis, rather than differentiation, during early neural differentiation.

Microdomain-dependent regulation of Lck and Fyn protein-tyrosine kinases in T lymphocyte plasma membranes.

Src family protein-tyrosine kinases are implicated in signaling via glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored receptors. Both kinds of molecules reside in opposite leaflets of the same sphingolipid-enriched microdomains in the lymphocyte plasma membrane without making direct contact. Under detergent-free conditions, we isolated a GPI-enriched plasma membrane fraction, also containing transmembrane proteins, selectively associated with sphingolipid microdomains. Nonionic detergents released the transmembrane proteins, yielding core sphingolipid microdomains, limited amounts of which could also be obtained by detergent-free subcellular fractionation. Protein-tyrosine kinase activity in membranes containing both GPI-anchored and transmembrane proteins was much lower than in core sphingolipid microdomains but was strongly reactivated by nonionic detergents. The inhibitory mechanism acting on Lck and Fyn kinases in these membranes was independent of the protein-tyrosine phosphatase CD45 and was characterized as a mixed, noncompetitive one. We propose that in lymphocyte plasma membranes, Lck and Fyn kinases exhibit optimal activity when juxtaposed to the GPI- and sphingolipid-enriched core microdomains but encounter inhibitory conditions in surrounding membrane areas that are rich in glycerophospholipids and contain additional transmembrane proteins.

Phosphorylated cis-4-methylsphingosine mimics the mitogenic effect of sphingosine-1-phosphate in Swiss 3T3 fibroblasts.

The phosphorylated derivative of sphingosine, sphingosine-1-phosphate, is a short-living metabolite of ultimate ceramide degradation and was shown to act as an intracellular signaling molecule, stimulating cell proliferation in quiescent Swiss 3T3 fibroblasts and inducing the release of calcium from intracellular stores (Zhang, H., Desai, N. N., Olivera, A., Seki, T., Brooker, G., and Spiegel, S. (1991) J. Cell. Biol. 114, 155-167). In the present study, 24-h treatment of Swiss 3T3 fibroblasts with the synthetic sphingosine analogue cis-4-methylsphingosine resulted in proliferation of quiescent Swiss 3T3 fibroblasts that was 3-fold stronger than that of equimolar sphingosine-1-phosphate. The phosphorylated derivative of cis-4-methylsphingosine accumulated drastically in the cells. Simultaneous treatment with the sphingosine kinase inhibitor L-threo-sphinganine reduced both the amount of phosphorylated cis-4-methylsphingosine and cell proliferation induced by this compound by about 50%, indicating that the phosphorylated derivative mediated the proliferative stimulus. The mitogenic effect of cis-4-methylsphingosine was associated with a mobilization of intracellular calcium in Swiss 3T3 fibroblasts that was similar to that induced by sphingosine-1-phosphate. The results demonstrate that the phosphorylated derivative of cis-4-methylsphingosine mimics the previously reported mitogenic action of sphingosine-1-phosphate in Swiss 3T3 cells, and the stronger effect most likely corresponds to the unusual accumulation of this compound.

Sphingolipid metabolism. Sphingoid analogs, sphingolipid activator proteins, and the pathology of the cell.

Sphingolipid metabolism and function was investigated using sphingoid analogs, cells from human sphingolipidoses patients, and knockout animals. Treatment of primary cultured murine cerebellar cells with the structurally modified sphingosine base cis-4 methylsphingosine resulted in decreased sphingolipid biosynthesis accompanied by significant morphological changes. Plasma-membrane-derived glycosphingolipids (GSLs) destined for digestion are internalized through the endocytic pathway and delivered to lysosomes. There, GSLs are degraded by the action of exohydrolases, which are supported, in the case of GSLs with short oligosaccharide chains, by sphingolipid activator proteins (SAPs or saposins). The inherited deficiency of activators give rise to sphingolipid storage diseases. The analysis of cultured fibroblasts from corresponding patients suggests a new model for the topology of endocytosis and lysosomal digestion. Mice with disrupted genes for activator proteins and for GM2 degrading hexosaminidases turned out to be useful models for human diseases.

The complete genome of the hyperthermophilic bacterium Aquifex aeolicus.

Aquifex aeolicus was one of the earliest diverging, and is one of the most thermophilic, bacteria known. It can grow on hydrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and mineral salts. The complex metabolic machinery needed for A. aeolicus to function as a chemolithoautotroph (an organism which uses an inorganic carbon source for biosynthesis and an inorganic chemical energy source) is encoded within a genome that is only one-third the size of the E. coli genome. Metabolic flexibility seems to be reduced as a result of the limited genome size. The use of oxygen (albeit at very low concentrations) as an electron acceptor is allowed by the presence of a complex respiratory apparatus. Although this organism grows at 95 degrees C, the extreme thermal limit of the Bacteria, only a few specific indications of thermophily are apparent from the genome. Here we describe the complete genome sequence of 1,551,335 base pairs of this evolutionarily and physiologically interesting organism.

1-Methylthiodihydroceramide, a novel analog of dihydroceramide, stimulates sphinganine degradation resulting in decreased de novo sphingolipid biosynthesis.

1-Methylthiodihydroceramide (10 microM) decreased de novo ceramide biosynthesis by about 90% in primary cultured cerebellar neurons. Accordingly, de novo formation of sphingomyelin and of glycosphingolipids, all of which contain ceramide in their backbone, was reduced in a time- and concentration-dependent manner by up to 80%. Complex sphingolipid synthesis was restored upon addition of dihydroceramide or ceramide, in micromolar concentrations, to the culture medium, suggesting that none of the glycosyltransferases involved in glycosphingolipid biosynthesis is inhibited by this analog. Assays of the enzymes catalyzing sphinganine biosynthesis, as well as its N-acylation to form dihydroceramide, revealed that they were also not affected. In contrast, there was a 2.5-fold increase in the activity of sphinganine kinase. Reduction of de novo sphingolipid biosynthesis by 1-methylthiodihydroceramide is therefore due to its ability to deplete cells of newly formed free sphinganine. As a consequence of depletion of sphinganine levels, 1-methylthiodihydroceramide disrupted axonal growth in cultured hippocampal neurons in a manner similar to that reported for direct inhibitors of sphingolipid synthesis; thus, there was essentially no axon growth after incubation with 1-methylthiodihydroceramide between days 2 and 3, and co-incubation with short acyl chain analogs of ceramide (5 microM) antagonized the inhibition of growth. Interestingly, the D-erythro and the L-threo isomere were equally effective, but the corresponding free base as well as other structurally related compounds did not affect either sphingolipid biosynthesis or neuronal growth.

Conversion of dihydroceramide to ceramide occurs at the cytosolic face of the endoplasmic reticulum.

Dihydroceramide desaturase is responsible for the introduction of the 4,5-trans double bond into ceramide. Here, we describe the localization of this enzyme in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) using ER- and Golgi-enriched fractions from rat liver. Furthermore, enzyme topology was studied. Mild proteolysis of ER-derived vesicles under conditions which assure membrane integrity (latency of mannose 6-phosphatase was at least 91%) resulted in an up to 90% inactivation of dihydroceramide desaturase activity. This indicates a cytosolic orientation of dihydroceramide desaturase activity in the ER membrane.

Characterization of ceramide synthesis. A dihydroceramide desaturase introduces the 4,5-trans-double bond of sphingosine at the level of dihydroceramide.

Ceramide (N-acylsphingosine) biosynthesis has been proposed to involve introduction of the 4,5-trans-double bond of sphingosine after synthesis of dihydroceramide (i.e. N-acylsphinganine). For the first time, the in vitro conversion of dihydroceramide to ceramide has been demonstrated using rat liver microsomes and N-[1-14C]octanoyl-D-erythro-sphinganine (st-H2Cer) and either NADH or NADPH as co-substrate; the apparent Km values for st-H2Cer and NADH were 340 and 120 microM, respectively. Molecular oxygen is required for enzymatic activity, and cyanide, divalent copper, as well as antibodies raised against cytochrome b5 are inhibitory, which suggests that this enzyme should be named dihydroceramide desaturase based on these similarities with the mechanism of delta9-desaturase (stearoyl-CoA desaturase). Factors that influenced the activity of dihydroceramide desaturase include the alkyl chain length of the sphingoid base (in the order C18 > C12 > C8) and fatty acid (C8 > C18); the stereochemistry of the sphingoid base (D-erythro- > L-threo-dihydroceramides); the nature of the headgroup, with the highest activity with dihydroceramide, but some (approximately 20%) activity with dihydroglucosylceramide, however); and the ability to utilize alternative reductants (ascorbic acid could substitute for a reduced pyridine nucleotide, but was inhibitory at higher concentrations). Dihydroceramide desaturase was inhibited by dithiothreitol, which suggests that it might be possible to alter ceramide synthesis by varying the thiol status of hepatocytes. Consistent with this hypothesis, when rat hepatocytes were cultured in varying concentrations of N-acetylcysteine (5 and 10 mM), there was a decrease in the relative incorporation of [14C]serine into [14C]ceramide. These studies have conclusively established the pathway of ceramide synthesis via desaturation of dihydroceramide and have uncovered several properties of this reaction that warrant further consideration for their relevance to both sphingolipid metabolism and signaling.

cis-4-Methylsphingosine decreases sphingolipid biosynthesis by specifically interfering with serine palmitoyltransferase activity in primary cultured neurons.

The effect of six different structurally modified sphingosine analogues on biosynthesis of sphingolipids was studied in primary cultured murine cerebellar neurons. Treatment of cells with cis-4-methylsphingosine at micromolar levels resulted in a markedly decreased sphingolipid biosynthesis, whereas the other compounds examined, trans-4-methylsphingosine, cis-5-methylsphingosine, trans-5-methylsphingosine, cis-sphingosine, and 1-deoxysphingosine, inhibited sphingolipid biosynthesis less efficiently. The inhibition of sphingolipid biosynthesis by the various compounds was paralleled by a decrease of serine palmitoyltransferase activity in situ. For cis-4-methylsphingosine the inhibitory effect on serine palmitoyltransferase activity was shown to be concentration- and time-dependent. Half-maximal reduction of enzyme activity occurred after 24 h of treatment with 10 microM of the compound. The activity of other enzymes of sphingolipid biosynthesis as well as phospholipid and protein biosynthesis was not affected. Analysis of the sphingoid moiety of cellular sphingolipids suggests that the sphingosine analogues listed above were subject to degradation rather than being utilized as precursors for sphingolipid biosynthesis by cultured neurons. Except of 1-deoxysphingosine, the other five sphingosine analogues were shown to be substrates for sphingosine kinase in vitro. After 24 h of treatment of primary cerebellar neurons with the various sphingosine analogues the relative percentage of the respective intracellular 1-phosphate derivatives paralleled exactly the inhibitory effect on serine palmitoyltransferase activity observed when cells were treated with the unphosphorylated compounds. In contrast to the respective 1-phosphate derivatives of the other methyl-branched sphingosine analogues examined, cis-4-methylsphingosine 1-phosphate showed an intracellular accumulation suggesting a delayed turnover rate in cultured murine neurons for this compound. These results suggest that the inhibitory effect of the sphingosine analogues on serine palmitoyltransferase is mediated by their respective 1-phosphate derivatives and that the pronounced effect of cis-4-methylsphingosine is caused by a high intracellular concentration of cis-4-methylsphingosine 1-phosphate. cis-4-Methylsphingosine, in addition, caused drastic changes in cell morphology of primary cerebellar neurons, which were not observed when these cells were treated with one of the other sphingosine analogues examined.

Structural features of Glycera dibranchiata monomer hemoglobins. Primary sequences of monomer hemoglobin components II and III.

Primary sequences for the remaining two members (GMH2, GMH3) of the group of three major monomeric hemoglobins from the marine annelid Glycera dibranchiata have been obtained. Full sequences of each 147-amino acid globin were achieved with a high degree of confidence using standard Edman technology in combination with molecular mass determinations of the intact globins and of the cyanogen bromide cleavage fragments using electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. When minor assumptions concerning Q/E identities are made these new results indicate the likely correspondence of GMG2 with the protein represented by the first Glycera dibranchiata monomer hemoglobin complete sequence [Imamura et al., (1972), J. Biol. Chem. 247, 2785-2797]. When these new sequences are combined with the previously determined primary sequence for the third major monomer hemoglobin, GMH4 [Alam et al., J. Protein Chem. (1994), 13, 151-164], it becomes clear that these three (GMG2-4) are truly distinct proteins, contrary to previous suggestions. Surprisingly, our results show that none of these three primary sequences is identical to the published sequence of the refined monomer hemoglobin crystal structure protein; however, there is a strong correspondence to the GMG2 sequence. The present sequencing results, in combination with the published GMH4 sequence, confirm the presence of a distal Leu in place of the more commonly encountered distal His in all three of the major monomer hemoglobins isolated in this laboratory and indicate that the unusual B10 Phe occurs only in GMH4. Analysis of the sequences presented here, along with comparison of amino acid content for Glycera dibranchiata monomer hemoglobins isolated from three different laboratories, and comparison of NMR results from two laboratories suggest further correspondence which unify disparate published isolations.

Turnover of endogenous ceramide in cultured normal and Farber fibroblasts.

De novo synthesis and turnover of endogenous ceramide in cultured skin fibroblasts from patients affected with Farber lipogranulomatosis were studied by biosynthetical labeling of cellular sphingolipids with [14C]serine. The cellular uptake of [14C]serine and incorporation into de novo synthesized ceramide was similar in normal and Farber fibroblasts, with a half life of newly synthesized ceramide of 2.7 h in normal and diseased cells. Newly synthesized ceramide was found to be channeled directly into biosynthesis of complex sphingolipids rather than contributing to the pool of accumulated ceramide in Farber fibroblasts. The degradation of ceramide generated by the catabolism of complex sphingolipids in Farber cells was greatly delayed compared with control fibroblasts, with differences in the amount of radiolabeled cellular ceramide becoming evident after 6 h chase time. Individual Farber cell lines differed from each other in the amount of accumulated ceramide; however, no correlation was found between ceramide accumulation and residual acid ceramidase activity as determined in vitro. In addition, the amount of radiolabeled sphingomyelin was significantly increased in Farber fibroblasts suggesting a delayed degradation of this compound in this ceramide storage disorder. We propose biosynthetical labeling of endogenous ceramide with [14C]serine, in addition to other established methods, as a highly sensitive and reliable method for the diagnosis of Farber disease, allowing semiquantitative measurement of ceramide accumulation in cultured skin fibroblasts of patients affected with Farber lipogranulomatosis.

Differential regulation of Src-family protein tyrosine kinases in GPI domains of T lymphocyte plasma membranes.

The association of glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored cell surface glycoproteins with Src-family protein tyrosine kinases was analysed in intact T lymphocyte plasma membranes. Following subcellular fractionation without detergent, 25% of the recovered plasma membranes were light density vesicles enriched in GPI-anchored glycoproteins and sphingolipids (GPI domains), while the remainder behaved as heavier density vesicles containing equal amounts of lipids and proteins. Qualitatively similar lipids were found in both vesicle types, but only light density vesicles made of 65-75% lipids yielded a Triton X-100 resistant, sedimentable fraction containing GPI-linked glycoproteins and sphingolipids. The GPI-rich vesicles phosphotyrosylated an exogenous substrate as efficiently as the denser vesicles, despite a low Lck and Fyn kinase content. Likewise, these kinases were more efficiently phosphorylated in GPI domains than in denser vesicles. GPI domains thus could constitute plasma membrane "hot spots" where associated Src kinases assume an optimally active conformation that contributes to signaling via GPI-anchored cell surface glycoproteins.