Adverse effects of oral nonstimulant psychotropic medications in young children reported to a regional poison center.

BACKGROUND: Use of nonstimulant psychotropic medications other than antidepressants in young children is reported to be increasing. The patient safety ramifications of this remain unclear. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the frequency of calls to a regional poison center reporting adverse drug effects and the level of medical attention required in young children who are receiving oral nonstimulant psychotropic medications. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A retrospective review of 544 267 consecutive human exposure poison center records between 2000 and 2008 was conducted for cases of young children given nonstimulant psychotropic medications with therapeutic intent. RESULTS: A total of 597 cases met criteria for analysis. Drugs involved were 286 risperidone, 133 clonidine, 114 quetiapine, 37 aripiprazole, 43 olanzapine, 29 ziprasidone, and 5 buspirone; two or more were involved in 250 cases. Reasons for exposure included excess dose given unintentionally (61%), wrong medication unintentionally (12%), adverse effects with correct dose (11%), excess dose intentionally (0.6%), therapeutic error by health-care provider (0.5%), and unclear circumstances (15%). Moderate effects (such as dystonic reaction) occurred in 34 patients at their usual dose (53% of 64) and in 15 at unintentionally excessive doses (4% of 361). Emergency department evaluation of 22% of the children resulted in 5% of the total being admitted to a non-intensive care unit (ICU) bed and 2% of all admitted to an ICU bed. CONCLUSION: Dosing errors and adverse effects involving nonstimulant psychotropic medications are cause for concern in young children. Additional information about safety and optimal dosage of these medications is needed to guide appropriate use.

Pediatric procedural sedation by a dedicated nonanesthesiology pediatric sedation service using propofol.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the success and dosing requirements of propofol in children for prolonged procedural sedation by a nonanesthesiology-based sedation service. METHODS: The pediatric sedation service at this institution uses propofol as its preferred sedative, and the local guideline suggests using 3 mg/kg for induction and 5 mg kg(-1) h(-1) for maintenance sedation. Doses can be adjusted as needed to individualize successful sedation. A retrospective analysis of patients sedated for 30 minutes or longer was conducted. Patients were stratified into 4 cohorts based on age (<1 year [n = 16], 1-2 years [n = 85], 3-7 years [n = 54], and >7 years [n = 55]) and dosing patterns, success, and adverse effects were investigated. RESULTS: Two hundred forty-nine patients met the inclusion criteria. Mean age was 4.8 years (SD, 4.1). The mean induction dose was 3.2 mg/kg (range, 0.9-9.7), and the mean maintenance infusion was 5.2 mg kg(-1) h(-1) (range, 0.14-21.3). No differences were seen in the induction doses in the different age cohorts, yet the SD was largest in the youngest cohort compared to any other. Although no differences were seen in maintenance rates by age, the greatest SD for dosing was seen in the oldest cohort. For all ages, all sedations were successful (100%) and unanticipated adverse effects rare (<1%). CONCLUSIONS: Although it seems that the mean dosing of propofol does not vary significantly with age, there is greater variability in induction dosage for those younger than 1 year and in maintenance dosing for those 7 years or older. The results and general dosing parameters may assist pediatric subspecialists in using propofol for prolonged procedural sedation.

Pediatric emergency department overcrowding: electronic medical record for identification of frequent, lower acuity visitors. Can we effectively identify patients for enhanced resource utilization?

The objective of this study was to utilize the electronic medical record system to identify frequent lower acuity patients presenting to the Pediatric Emergency Department and to evaluate their impact on Pediatric Emergency Department overcrowding and resource utilization. The electronic medical records (EMR) of two pediatric emergency centers were reviewed from August 2002 to November 2004. Pediatric Emergency Department encounters that met any of the following criteria were classified as Visits Necessitating Pediatric Emergency Department care (VNEC): Disposition of admission, transfer or deceased; Intravenous fluids (IVF) or medications (excluding single antipyretic or antihistamine); Radiology or laboratory tests (excluding Rapid Strep); Fractures, dislocations, and febrile seizures. All other visits were classified as non-VNEC. ICD-9 (International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision) codes from the Pediatric Emergency Department encounters were defined as representing chronic or non-chronic conditions. Patients were then evaluated for utilization patterns, frequency of Emergency Department (ED) visits, chronic illness, and VNEC status. There were 153,390 patients identified, representing 255,496 visits (1.7 visits/patient, range 1-49). Overall, 189,998 visits (74%) required defined ED services and were categorized as VNEC, with the remaining 65,498 visits (26%) categorized as non-VNEC. With increasing visits, a steady decline in those requiring ED services was observed, with a plateau by visit six (VNEC 77% @ one visit, 64% @ six visits, p < 0.001). There were 141,765 patients seen fewer than four times, representing 92% of the patients and 74% of all visits (1.3 visits/patient, 225 visits/day). In contrast, 2664 patients disproportionately utilized the ED more than six times (maximum 49), representing 1.7% of patients and 9.8% of visits (9.4 visit/patient, 30 visits/day, p < 0.001). Excluding patients with chronic illness, 1074 patients also disproportionately utilized the ED more than six times (maximum 28), representing 0.7% of patients and 3.6% of visits (8.6 visit/patient, 11 visits/day, p < 0.001). While representing < 2% of patients, frequent lower acuity utilizers of ED services accounted for nearly 10% of all visits (30/day). Low acuity patients may require only limited additional marginal resources for their individual care. However, in aggregate, inefficiencies occur, especially when systems reach capacity constraints, at which point these patients utilize limited resources (manpower and space) that could more effectively be directed toward the more acutely ill and injured patients. Therefore, identification of these patients utilizing the electronic medical record will allow for targeted interventions of this subgroup to improve future resource allocation.

CT versus plain radiographs for evaluation of c-spine injury in young children: do benefits outweigh risks?

BACKGROUND: Various reports support the use of cervical spine (c-spine) CT over conventional radiography in screening of c-spine injury. Interest now exists in diagnostic radiation-induced morbidity. OBJECTIVE: To estimate excess relative risk for developing cancer from c-spine high-resolution CT radiation exposure. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We conducted a retrospective review of children evaluated for c-spine injury using CT. The study population was divided into three age groups, 0-4 years (group 1), 5-8 years (group 2), and older than 8 years (group 3). Anthropomorphic 1-year-old and 5-year-old phantoms were used to measure radiation at the thyroid during radiography and CT. Excess relative risk for thyroid cancer was estimated using these measurements. RESULTS: A total of 557 patients were evaluated with CT. The radiographic method most commonly used was head CT/c-spine CT in 363 (65%). Only 179 children (32%) had any type of prior radiography. The use of c-spine CT exposes the thyroid to 90-200 times more radiation than multiple conventional radiographs. The mean excess relative risk for thyroid cancer after CT was 2.0 for group 1 and 0.6 for group 2. There were no comparison data for group 3. CONCLUSION: C-spine CT is associated with a significant exposure to ionizing radiation and increases excess relative risk for thyroid cancer in young children.

Evaluation of a pediatric-sedation service for common diagnostic procedures.

BACKGROUND: Pediatric patients often require sedation for diagnostic procedures such as magnetic resonance imaging and computed tomography scanning. In October 2002, a dedicated sedation service was started at a tertiary care pediatric facility as a joint venture between pediatric emergency medicine and pediatric critical care medicine. Before this service, sedation was provided by the department of radiology by using a standard protocol, with high-risk patients and failed sedations referred for general anesthesia. OBJECTIVES: To describe the initial experience with a dedicated pediatric-sedation service. METHODS: This was a retrospective analysis of quality-assurance data collected on all sedations in the radiology department for 23-month periods before and after sedation-service implementation. Study variables were number and reasons for canceled or incomplete procedures, rates of referral for general anesthesia, rates of hypoxia, prolonged sedation, need for assisted ventilation, apnea, emesis, and paradoxical reaction to medication. Results are reported in odds ratios (OR) with 95% confidence intervals (95% CI). RESULTS: Data from 5,444 sedations were analyzed; 2,148 before and 3,296 after sedation-service activation. Incomplete studies secondary to inadequate sedation decreased, from 2.7% before the service was created to 0.8% in the post-sedation-service period (OR, 0.29; 95% CI = 0.18 to 0.47). There also were decreases in cancellations caused by patient illness (3.8% vs. 0.6%; OR, 0.16; 95% CI = 0.10 to 0.27) and rates of hypoxia (8.8% vs. 4.6%; OR, 0.50; 95% CI = 0.40 to 0.63). There were no significant differences between the groups in rates of apnea, need for assisted ventilation, emesis, or prolonged sedation. The implementation of the sedation service also was associated with a decrease in both the number of patients referred to general anesthesia without a trial of sedation (from 2.1% to 0.1%; OR, 0.33; 95% CI = 0.06 to 1.46) and the total number of general anesthesia cases in the radiology department (from 7.5% to 4.4% of all patients requiring either sedation or anesthesia; OR, 0.56; 95% CI = 0.45 to 0.71). CONCLUSIONS: The implementation of a dedicated pediatric-sedation service resulted in fewer incomplete studies related to inadequate sedation, in fewer canceled studies secondary to patient illness, in fewer referrals for general anesthesia, and in fewer recorded instances of sedation-associated hypoxia. These findings have important implications in terms of patient safety and resource utilization.

A randomized, controlled trial of sucrose analgesia in infants younger than 90 days of age who require bladder catheterization in the pediatric emergency department.

OBJECTIVES: To determine whether an oral sucrose solution improves pain response for infants undergoing bladder catheterization in an emergency department (ED) population. METHODS: A randomized, double-blinded study comparing the analgesic effects of a sucrose solution to placebo for infants < or = 90 days of age and requiring bladder catheterization. Infants with prior bladder catheterization, previous painful procedures that day, or neurological or genital abnormalities were excluded. Infants were assigned baseline pain scores and then given 2 mL of sucrose or water 2 minutes before catheterization. Trained pediatric ED nurses rated the infants for pain, presence of cry, and time to return to baseline. RESULTS: Eighty-three patients were enrolled; 40 were randomized to sucrose, and 40, to placebo. Baseline pain scores were similar within each age group. Overall, sucrose did not produce a significant analgesic effect. In subgroup analysis, infants 1-30 days of age receiving sucrose showed a smaller change in pain scores (2.9 vs. 5.3, p = 0.035), were less likely to cry with catheterization (29% vs. 72%, p = 0.008), and returned to baseline more rapidly after catheter removal (10 seconds vs. 37 seconds, p = 0.04) compared with infants who received placebo. Infants older than 30 days of age who received sucrose did not show statistically significant differences in pain scores, crying, or time to return to baseline behavior. CONCLUSIONS: There was no overall treatment effect when using an oral sucrose solution before bladder catheterization in infants younger than 90 days of age. However, infants younger than or equal to 30 days of age who received sucrose had smaller increases in pain scores, less crying, and returned to baseline more rapidly than infants receiving placebo. Older infants did not show an improved pain response with oral sucrose.

Posttraumatic stress responses in children: awareness and practice among a sample of pediatric emergency care providers.

BACKGROUND: Research suggests that up to 4 of 5 children experience symptoms of an acute stress response (ASR) after a motor vehicle-related injury, and approximately 25% will develop posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The degree to which physicians recognize this problem has not been reported. Our objective was to evaluate current awareness and practices of a cohort of pediatric emergency care providers regarding posttraumatic stress in children. METHODS: Participants were identified from a list of the American Academy of Pediatrics Section on Emergency Medicine and surveyed on their awareness of ASR after motor vehicle-related injury, risk factors for developing PTSD, and practices regarding emergency department (ED) interventions. Surveys from physicians not practicing clinical emergency medicine were excluded. RESULTS: Of 322 surveys returned, 287 responses met inclusion criteria. Among these respondents, 198 (69%) were pediatric emergency medicine board certified or eligible and 260 (91%) practiced in a designated pediatric ED. Only 20 of 287 respondents (7%) believed that children were likely to develop symptoms of posttraumatic stress at levels previously described. Also in contrast to recent literature, 248 respondents (86%) felt that severity of injury was associated with future development of PTSD. Associated parental injury was identified accurately as a risk factor by 250 respondents (87%). Of interest, only 31 respondents (11%) were aware of any available tools to assess risk for PTSD. In addition, 56 of 287 respondents (20%) indicated that they would not use such tools in the ED, most commonly citing time and cost constraints. Finally, only 52 respondents (18%) reported giving any verbal guidance and only 9 (3%) provided any written instructions about posttraumatic stress to their patients and families. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that physicians underestimate the likely development of an ASR and PTSD in the pediatric population. At present, few physicians offer written or even verbal instruction related to the development of posttraumatic symptoms. Physician education along with a systematic approach of assessment and intervention is necessary to address the gap between underrecognition of this concern and desired clinical practice.

Pediatric restraint use is associated with reduced transports by emergency medical services providers after motor vehicle crashes.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the association between pediatric restraint use during motor vehicle crashes and patient transports by emergency medical services (EMS) providers. METHODS: Children under 16 years of age who were involved in motor vehicle crashes in Houston or Harris County, Texas, in 1997 were identified from Texas Department of Public Safety (DPS) crash data. DPS data were linked probabilistically to City of Houston Fire Department EMS data to identify whether the children were transported from the scene by EMS. Odds ratios were calculated to determine the association between restraint use and EMS transport. Logistic regression was used to control for age and injury severity in this relationship. RESULTS: From the linked data for 1997, 1,696 children were involved in reported automobile or truck crashes to which EMS responded. Of the 1,580 children about whom information concerning restraint use was available, 1,309 (83%) were wearing some type of safety restraint and 1,342 (85%) were transported by EMS. Adjusting for injury severity, children wearing safety restraints during motor vehicle crashes were 60% (95% confidence interval 34-75%) less likely to be transported by EMS than those not wearing safety restraints during such crashes. CONCLUSIONS: The use of safety restraints during motor vehicle crashes is associated with a reduction in the number of children transported from the scene by EMS providers. This effect is independent of age and injury severity.