Reimagining Cancer: Moving from the Cellular to the Tissue Level.

The current universally accepted explanation of cancer origin and behavior, the somatic mutation theory, is cell-centered and rooted in perturbation of gene function independent of the external environmental context. However, tumors consist of various epithelial and stromal cell populations temporally and spatially organized into an integrated neoplastic community, and they can have properties similar to normal tissues. Accordingly, we review specific normal cellular and tissue traits and behaviors with adaptive temporal and spatial self-organization that result in ordered patterns and structures. A few recent theories have described these tissue-level cancer behaviors, invoking a conceptual shift from the cellular level and highlighting the need for methodologic approaches based on the analysis of complex systems. We propose extending the analytical approach of regulatory networks to the tissue level and introduce the concept of "cancer attractors." These concepts require reevaluation of cancer imaging and investigational approaches and challenge the traditional reductionist approach of cancer molecular biology.

From Oncological Paradigms to Non-Communicable Disease Pandemic. The Need of Recovery Human Biology Evolution.

The paradigm of the Somatic Mutation Theory (SMT) is failing, and a new paradigm is underway but not yet established. What is being challenged is a conceptual approach that involves the entire human biology and the development of chronic diseases. The behavior of breast and other solid cancers is compatible with the concept that the primary tumor is able to control its microscopic metastases, in the same way that an organ (e.g., the liver) is able to control its physiological size. This finding suggested that cancer and its metastases may behave as an organoid. The new paradigm under construction considers the origin of tumors as a disturbance in the communication network between tissue cell populations and between cells and extracellular matrix, and supports a systemic approach to the study of both healthy and pathologic tissues. The commentary provides a rationale for the role of physical exercise in the control of tumor dormancy according to a human evolutionary perspective.

Late Recurrence in Breast Cancer: To Run after the Oxen or to Try to Close the Barn?

The problem of late recurrence in breast cancer has recently gained attention and was also addressed in an international workshop held in Toronto (ON, Canada), in which several aspects of the question were examined. This Commentary offers a few considerations, which may be useful for the ongoing investigations. A few premises are discussed: (a) clinical recurrences, especially the late ones, imply periods of tumor dormancy; (b) a structured pattern of distant metastases appearance is detectable in both early and late follow-up times; (c) the current general paradigm underlying neoplastic treatments, i.e., that killing all cancer cells is the only way to control the disease, which is strictly sprouting from the somatic mutation theory, should be re-considered. Finally, a few research approaches are suggested.

Does Physical Activity Have an Impact on Recurrence Dynamics in Early Breast Cancer Patients?

Several studies have suggested that pre and/or postdiagnosis physical activity can reduce the risk of recurrence in breast cancer patients, however its effect according to follow-up time has not yet been investigated. We analyzed recurrence and mortality dynamics in randomized clinical trials (RCTs) from Australia and Canada. The combined Australian RCTs evaluated, at a median follow-up of 8.3 years, an 8-month pragmatic exercise intervention in 337 women with newly diagnosed breast cancer, while the Canadian RCT evaluated, at a median follow-up of 7.4 years, supervised aerobic or resistance exercise during chemotherapy in 242 patients. For each RCT, the control arm consisted of patients undergoing usual care. We estimated the event dynamics by the discrete hazard function, through flexible regression of yearly conditional event probabilities with generalized additive models. In the considered RCTs, the recurrence and mortality risk of patients enrolled in the physical activity arm were stably decreased at medium/long term after five year of follow-up. In the Australian RCTs where patients were recruited by urban versus rural area, the latter group did not display benefit from physical activity. Estimated odds ratios (95% confidence intervals) for disease-free survival (DFS) in urban women were 0.63 (0.22-1.85); 0.27 (0.079-0.90); 0.11 (0.013-0.96) at the 3rd, 5th and 7th year of follow-up, respectively. For rural women, DFS patterns were overlapping with odds ratios (ORs), approximating 1 at the different years of follow-up. Although not reaching statistical evidence, the estimates in the Canadian trial were in line with the results from the Australian urban women with ORs (95% CI) for DFS of 0.70 (0.33-1.50); 0.47 (0.19-1.18); 0.32 (0.077-1.29) at 3rd, 5th, 7th follow-up year, respectively. While we acknowledge that the analyzed RCTs were not designed for investigating disease recurrence over time, these results support the evidence that physical activity reduces the risk of developing medium-/long-term metastases. Additional translational research is needed to clarify the mechanisms underlying these observations.

Interpreting Breast Cancer Survival Data by the Hazard Function: Remarkable Findings from Event Dynamics.

The report addresses the role of the hazard function in the analysis of disease-free survival data in breast cancer. An investigation on local recurrences after mastectomy provided evidence that uninterrupted growth is inconsistent with clinical findings and that tumor dormancy could be assumed as working hypothesis to understand the clinical course of the disease. Additionally, it was deemed that the lag-time between primary tumor removal and tumor recurrence is dynamically dependent on the subclinical metastasis development within the host-tumor system and, therefore, may be informative about the biology of the disease. Accordingly, the hazard function, which estimates the event risk pattern through the time, was adopted to analyze survival data. The multipeak pattern of the hazard function suggested that the process metastasis development has discontinuous features. A new paradigm of breast cancer metastatic development was proposed, involving the notions of tumor homeostasis, tumor quiescence in specific metastatic microscopic phases and surgery-related acceleration of the metastatic process. All analyses by prognostic factors (e.g., by menopausal status) or treatment modalities (e.g., by adjuvant chemotherapy) or other parameters (e.g., site of metastasis), provided coherent data in agreement with the model. The hazard rate function allowed addressing several clinical questions including meaning of ipsilateral breast tumor recurrence (IBTR), oncologic effect of delayed breast reconstruction, surgery related metastasis acceleration, possible role of anti-inflammatory drugs and body mass index (BMI) to modulate the recurrence risk. We conclude that the hazard function is a powerful tool to investigate the post-surgical course of early breast cancer and other operable tumors and to make inferences on their biology.

Differential Benefit of Adjuvant Docetaxel-Based Chemotherapy in Patients With Early Breast Cancer According to Baseline Body Mass Index.

PURPOSE: Lipophilic drugs, such as taxanes, have a high affinity for adipose tissue and a resulting higher volume of distribution. Here, we reanalyzed clinical trial data to investigate whether the efficacy of docetaxel-based chemotherapy differs from non-docetaxel-based chemotherapy in patients with breast cancer according to their baseline body mass index (BMI). PATIENTS AND METHODS: We retrospectively analyzed data from all of the patients in the adjuvant BIG 2-98 trial (ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT00174655; N = 2,887) comparing non-docetaxel- to docetaxel-containing chemotherapy. BMI (kg/m2) was categorized as follows: 18.5 to < 25, lean; 25 to < 30, overweight; and ≥ 30, obese. Disease-free survival (DFS) was the primary endpoint, and overall survival (OS) was the secondary endpoint. A second-order interaction was assessed among treatment, BMI, and estrogen receptor (ER) status. RESULTS: There was no difference in DFS or OS according to BMI in the non-docetaxel group, while reduced DFS and OS were observed with increasing BMI category in the docetaxel group. Adjusted hazard ratios for DFS and OS were, respectively, 1.12 (95% CI, 0.98 to 1.50; P = .21) and 1.27 (95% CI, 1.01 to 1.60; P = .04) for overweight versus lean groups and were 1.32 (95% CI, 1.08 to 1.62; P = .007) and 1.63 (95% CI, 1.27 to 2.09; P < .001), respectively, for obese versus lean groups. Similar results were obtained when considering ER-negative and ER-positive tumors separately and when considering only patients who received a relative dose intensity ≥ 85% for docetaxel. A joint modifying role of BMI and ER status on treatment effect was evident for DFS (adjusted P = .06) and OS (adjusted P = .04). CONCLUSION: This retrospective analysis of a large adjuvant trial highlights a differential response to docetaxel according to BMI, which calls for a body composition-based re-evaluation of the risk-benefit ratio of the use of taxanes in breast cancer. These results now must be confirmed in additional series.

Breast cancer and the black swan.

Most current research in cancer is attempting to find ways of preventing patients from dying after metastatic relapse. Driven by data and analysis, this project is an approach to solve the problem upstream, i.e., to prevent relapse. This project started with the unexpected observation of bimodal relapse patterns in breast and a number of other cancers. This was not explainable with the current cancer paradigm that has guided cancer therapy and early detection for many years. After much analysis using computer simulation and input from a number of medical specialties, we eventually came to the conclusion that the surgery to remove the primary tumour produced systemic inflammation for a week after surgery. This systemic inflammation apparently caused exits of cancer cells and micrometastases from dormant states and resulted in relapses in the first 3 years post-surgery. It was determined in a retrospective study that the common inexpensive perioperative non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) ketorolac could curtail the early relapse events after breast cancer surgery. A second retrospective study strongly confirmed this but an apparently underpowered prospective study showed no advantage. We are analysing these data and are now proposing to test the perioperative NSAID at Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Centre with triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) patients, the category that could respond best to the perioperative NSAID. If this works as well as we expect, we would then transfer this technology to low- and/or middle-incomes countries (LMICs), starting with Nigeria where early onset type of TNBC is common. There is an unmet need in LMICs, especially in countries like Nigeria (190 million population), for a means to prevent surgery induced relapse that we are attempting to resolve. This work aims, thus, to describe eventual mechanisms, and ways to test a solution addressing an unmet need. But first, we consider the context, including within an historical perspective, important to explain how and why a Kuhnian paradigm shift may be considered.

Late effects of adjuvant chemotherapy adumbrate dormancy complexity in breast cancer.

BACKGROUND: Dormant avascular micrometastases and single, or small groups of, non-proliferating cells are currently assumed to explain the multipeak dynamics of distant metastases (DM) following primary breast cancer surgical removal. METHODS: The hazard rate pattern for DM was analysed in 1518 premenopausal node-positive patients, enrolled in a series of randomized clinical trials on early breast cancer, which were carried out in Italy and Belgium. Patients underwent surgery alone (n = 397) or surgery plus adjuvant chemotherapy (n = 1121) and the minimal follow up was 15 years. RESULTS: The DM hazard rate for patients undergoing surgery alone displayed two early sharp peaks at 9 and 33 months, a wide intermediate one spanning from about 50 to 90 months and a late peak at 115-120 months. Adjuvant chemotherapy was associated with a prominent reduction of the two early peaks leaving a residual one at about 18 months and a reduction of the intermediate peak leaving two small peaks at about 50 and 80 months. The late peak remained unchanged. CONCLUSIONS: Present results reveal the ability of adjuvant chemotherapy to reduce not only the rate of early relapses, but also the rate of intermediate relapses at about the sixth year of follow up. Adjuvant chemotherapy is not impacting on the development of metastases underlying the late peak detected at the tenth year. These findings suggest the existence of a previously unknown dormancy state that, at the primary tumour surgical removal, results in evolving chemo-sensitive metastatic processes, and, moreover, of a later chemo-refractory dormancy state.

Distant metastasis dynamics following subsequent surgeries after primary breast cancer removal.

BACKGROUND: The aim of the research was to separate the distant metastasis (DM) enhancing effect due to breast tumour removal from that due to surgical manoeuvre by itself. METHODS: DM dynamics following surgery for ipsilateral breast tumour recurrence (IBTR), contralateral breast cancer (CBC) and delayed reconstruction (REC), which was performed after the original breast cancer surgical removal, was analysed. A total of 338 patients with IBTR, 239 with CBC and 312 with REC were studied. RESULTS: The DM dynamics following IBTR, CBC and REC, when assessed with time origin at their surgical treatment, is similar to the analogous pattern following primary tumour removal, with a first major peak at about 18 months and a second lower one at about 5 years from surgery. The time span between primary tumour removal and the second surgery is influential on DM risk levels for IBTR and CBC patients, not for REC patients. CONCLUSIONS: The role of breast tumour removal is different from the role of surgery by itself. Our findings suggest that the major effect of reconstructive surgery is microscopic metastasis acceleration, while breast tumour surgical removal (either primary or IBTR or CBC) involves both tumour homeostasis interruption and microscopic metastasis growth acceleration. The removal of a breast tumour would eliminate its homeostatic restrains on metastatic foci, thus allowing metastasis development, which, in turn, would be supported by the forwarding action of the mechanisms triggered by the surgical wounding.

Tumor dormancy at bedside: A late awakening.

Breast cancer recurrence may occur at variable times following primary tumor removal. The corresponding event dynamics displays a structured multipeak pattern, which can be explained by the occurrence of microscopic phases of metastasis quiescence (tumor dormancy) followed by wake up, growth and timed clinical appearance. This model provides a meaningful justification of the early recurrence pattern and even explains the effectiveness of adjuvant systemic therapies. Yet, late recurrences, which were less investigated, are fairly little known and a few researchers supported their steady state appearance. We report here the analysis of the late clinical course from patients who were disease-free at 5 years of follow-up, which again displays a structured pattern, supporting the view that tumor dormancy can explain the late recurrence risk as well. Tailored treatments are needed to address late clinical recurrences.

Dynamics of the hazard for distant metastases after ipsilateral breast tumor recurrence according to estrogen receptor status: An analysis of 2851 patients.

BACKGROUND: Breast cancer (BC) patients with ipsilateral breast tumor recurrence (IBTR) are at high risk of developing distant metastases (DM). We aimed to evaluate the risk pattern of developing DM, with respect to the occurrence of IBTR, in a large series of patients homogeneously treated by conservative surgery (QUART) with a considerably long follow-up. METHODS: Piecewise exponential model was used to investigate DM dynamics conditioning on known prognostic factors and IBTR occurrence as time dependent covariate. The model was extended to account for the timescale induced by IBTR, namely the time elapsed since IBTR to the endpoint. RESULTS: Among 2851 BCE patients receiving QUART, 209 were assessable for IBTR. After a median follow-up of 129 months, 588 patients presented DM (CCI = 27.3%) as first event and 92 (CCI = 48.8%) following IBTR. Primary tumor size and nodal status confirmed their prognostic value. The hazard for DM was early and high in Estrogen Receptor (ER) negative BC patients; while it was initially low but increases during follow-up in ER positive cases. Patients experiencing IBTR showed DM dynamic similar to that following primary tumor, with a sudden increased risk within 24 months from surgery, regardless the time elapsed since QUART. CONCLUSION: BC patients experiencing IBTR showed a sudden and sustained risk of DM following surgery. Our findings are consistent with the hypothesis that IBTR occurrence might act as a "time resector" for risk of DM, and provide a rationale for proper surveillance guidelines and systemic therapy for optimizing BC recurrence and appropriate choice of treatment.

Potential Benefit of Intra-operative Administration of Ketorolac on Breast Cancer Recurrence According to the Patient's Body Mass Index.

Background: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are currently used in some countries as analgesics in primary cancer surgery. Retrospective studies suggest that NSAIDs could reduce breast cancer recurrences. Because NSAIDs also act on biological mechanisms present in patients with increased adiposity, we aimed at assessing whether the intra-operative administration of ketorolac or diclofenac would be associated with a reduction of recurrence in patients with elevated body mass index (BMI). Methods: We considered two institutional retrospective series of 827 and 1007 patients evaluating the administration of ketorolac (n = 529 with, n = 298 without) or diclofenac (n = 787 with, n = 220 without). The BMI subgroups were defined as less than 25 kg/m2 (lean) and 25 or more kg/m2 (overweight and obese). Cumulative incidence estimation of distant metastases as well as Fine-Gray and Dixon-Simon models was used. These analyses were adjusted for clinico-pathological variables. All statistical tests were two-sided. Results: The administration of ketorolac was statistically significantly associated with decreased incidence of distant recurrences (adjusted hazard ratio [aHR]= 0.59, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.37 to 0.96, P = .03). In particular, the association was evident in the high-body mass index (BMI) group of patients (aHR = 0.55, 95% CI = 0.31 to 0.96, P = .04). The administration of diclofenac was not statistically significantly associated with decreased incidence of distant recurrences, either in the global population or in the BMI subgroups. Conclusions: These results show that the intra-operative administration of ketorolac, but not diclofenac, is statistically significantly associated with a reduction of distant recurrences in patients with increased BMI. Altogether, this study points to a potentially important repositioning of ketorolac in the intra-operative treatment of patients with elevated BMI that, if prospectively validated, might be as impactful as and cheaper than adjuvant systemic anticancer therapies.

Recurrence dynamics of breast cancer according to baseline body mass index.

BACKGROUND: In cancer follow-up, in addition to the evaluation of survival probabilities, there is a fundamental need of assessing recurrence dynamics for optimal disease management. Although the time-dependent effect of the oestrogen receptor (ER) status of the tumour has already been described, so far no factor has proven to disentangle the multi-peak behaviour observed for breast cancer recurrences. Here, we aimed at investigating whether adiposity at diagnosis, reflected by increased patient's body mass index (BMI), could be associated with breast cancer recurrence patterns over time after primary cancer therapy. METHODS: We retrieved BMI from 734 of 777 patients with node-positive breast cancer from a phase III randomised clinical trial, which compared different chemotherapy regimens and had a median follow-up of 15.4 years. Cumulative incidence estimation as well as piecewise exponential models were carried out to estimate the distant recurrence dynamics, in all patients, as well as in subgroups based on the ER status, with the ER-positive group being further split according to the menopausal status. RESULTS: In patients with ER-negative breast cancer, time-dependent analyses revealed that the hazard of late relapses could mainly be attributed to the overweight and obese patients. Within the subgroup of premenopausal patients with ER-positive tumours, obesity was associated with an early high narrow peak of distant recurrences followed by another main peak after 5 years of follow-up. The risk for overweight patients was intermediate between obese and normal-weight patients. In the postmenopausal subgroup of patients with ER-positive tumours, the distant recurrence rate was significantly more elevated in the overweight patients compared to the other BMI categories, and a second late peak of recurrences was also observed for the obese patients. CONCLUSION: These results demonstrate that the patient's BMI at diagnosis is associated with cancer recurrence dynamics. Patient adiposity should therefore be central to the exploration of late adjuvant treatment modalities.

Tumor dormancy and frailty models: A novel approach.

Frailty models are here proposed in the tumor dormancy framework, in order to account for possible unobservable dependence mechanisms in cancer studies where a non-negligible proportion of cancer patients relapses years or decades after surgical removal of the primary tumor. Relapses do not seem to follow a memory-less process, since their timing distribution leads to multimodal hazards. From a biomedical perspective, this behavior may be explained by tumor dormancy, i.e., for some patients microscopic tumor foci may remain asymptomatic for a prolonged time interval and, when they escape from dormancy, micrometastatic growth results in a clinical disease appearance. The activation of the growth phase at different metastatic states would explain the occurrence of metastatic recurrences and mortality at different times (multimodal hazard). We propose a new frailty model which includes in the risk function a random source of heterogeneity (frailty variable) affecting the components of the hazard function. Thus, the individual hazard rate results as the product of a random frailty variable and the sum of basic hazard rates. In tumor dormancy, the basic hazard rates correspond to micrometastatic developments starting from different initial states. The frailty variable represents the heterogeneity among patients with respect to relapse, which might be related to unknown mechanisms that regulate tumor dormancy. We use our model to estimate the overall survival in a large breast cancer dataset, showing how this improves the understanding of the underlying biological process.

The recurrence pattern following delayed breast reconstruction after mastectomy for breast cancer suggests a systemic effect of surgery on occult dormant micrometastases.

The purpose of this study was to characterize the recurrence dynamics in breast cancer patients after delayed reconstruction. We hypothesized that surgical reconstruction might stimulate dormant micrometastases and reduce time to recurrence. All mastectomy breast cancer patients with delayed surgical reconstruction at Haukeland University Hospital, between 1977 and 2007, n = 312, were studied. Our control group consisted of 1341 breast cancer patients without reconstruction. For each case, all patients in the control group with identical T and N stages and age ±2 years were considered. A paired control was randomly selected from this group. 10 years after primary surgery, 39 of the cases had relapsed, compared to 52 of the matched controls. The reconstructed group was analyzed for relapse dynamics after mastectomy; the first peak in relapses was similarly timed, but smaller than for the controls, while the second peak was similar in time and size. Second, the relapse pattern was analyzed with reconstruction as the starting point. A peak in recurrences was found after 18 months, and a lower peak at the 5th-6th year. The height of the peak correlated with the extent of surgery and initial T and N stages. Timing of the peak was not affected, neither was the cumulative effect. The relapse pattern, when time origin is placed both at mastectomy and at reconstruction, is bimodal with a peak position at the same time points, at 2 years and at 5-6 years. The timing of the transition from dormant micrometastases into clinically detectable macrometastases might be explained by an enhancing effect of surgery.

Cancer as a changed tissue's way of life (when to treat, when to watch and when to think).

The profound scientific and commercial success of molecular biology, the progress of 'cancer gene' investigation technologies, together, pushed forward the postulate that genes explain 'everything'. Yet, during the last few years the microenvironments of solid tumors have emerged as key modulators of initiation, progression and metastasis and as essential to the therapeutic response. In the present review, we provide a synthetic examination of the main traits of cells embedded into the cancer stroma and emphasize several evidences that all components of the tumor tissue cooperate in space and time. Then we turn to discuss the epitheliocentric somatic mutational view and other new paradigms assuming that disturbed tissue interactions among cell populations are critical to cancer causation, growth and spread.

p53 status identifies triple-negative breast cancer patients who do not respond to adjuvant chemotherapy.

Genomic analysis and protein expression assimilate triple-negative breast cancers (TNBC) with basal-like breast tumors. TNBCs, however, have proved to encompass also tumors with normal-like phenotype and known to have favorable prognosis and to respond to chemotherapy. In a recent paper, we have provided evidence that p53 status is able to subdivide TNBCs into two distinct subgroups with different outcome, and consistent with basal- and normal-like phenotypes. Based on this finding, we explored the contribution of p53 status in predicting the response to adjuvant CMF or CMF followed doxorubicin chemotherapy of a group of TNBC patients. Results indicated that TNBC patients with a p53-positive tumor had a shorter relapse-free and overall survival than patients carrying a p53-negative TNBC, corroborating our hypothesis about the relationship between TNBC phenotype (basal-like versus normal-like) and p53 status as predictor of response to anthracycline/CMF-based chemotherapy.

Multimodal hazard rate for relapse in breast cancer: quality of data and calibration of computer simulation.

Much has occurred since our 2010 report in Cancers. In the past few years we published several extensive reviews of our research so a brief review is all that will be provided here. We proposed in the earlier reports that most relapses in breast cancer occur within 5 years of surgery and seem to be associated with some unspecified manner of surgery-induced metastatic initiation. These events can be identified in relapse data and are correlated with clinical data. In the last few years an unexpected mechanism has become apparent. Retrospective analysis of relapse events by a Brussels anesthesiology group reported that a perioperative NSAID analgesic seems to reduce early relapses five-fold. We then proposed that primary surgery produces a transient period of systemic inflammation. This has now been identified by inflammatory markers in serum post mastectomy. That could explain the early relapses. It is possible that an inexpensive and non-toxic NSAID can reduce breast cancer relapses significantly. We want to take this opportunity to discuss database quality issues and our relapse hazard data in some detail. We also present a demonstration that the computer simulation can be calibrated with Adjuvant-on-line, an often used clinical tool for prognosis in breast cancer.

Comparative benefit from small tumour size and adjuvant chemotherapy: clues for explaining breast cancer mortality decline.

BACKGROUND: Breast cancer mortality steadily declined from the 1990s and this has been attributed to early detection and/or to improvements in therapy. Which of those two has had the greater impact is a subject of contention. METHODS: A database of 386 patients, enrolled in a randomized clinical trial on the effect of adjuvant chemotherapy (CMF), was analysed. The probabilities of recurrence and death were estimated by the Fine and Gray's model and by the Cox model. Time dependent covariate and interaction effects were investigated by additive models. Absolute risk reductions (ARR) related to adjuvant treatment or to tumour size [diameter ≤ 2 cm (T1) or >2 cm (T2/T3)] were estimated. RESULTS: CMF-related reduction in recurrence emerges early, reaches a maximum level at 3 years and persists at a constant level thereafter. Tumour-size-related recurrence reduction, after a maximum at 3 years, displays a progressive regular reduction approaching zero. Patients with any tumour size, when given CMF, exhibit mortality reduction that displays an early regular increase and continues to a persistent plateau. In contrast, tumour-size-related mortality reduction reaches a maximum at 5-7 years and then regularly drops to very low values for patients of both trial arms. CONCLUSIONS: Findings reveal that there is a different time-dependent benefit from chemotherapy and from smaller tumour size at diagnosis. The benefit from adjuvant chemotherapy is long-lasting for patients with any tumour size while the early benefit of diagnosing smaller tumours substantially decreases afterwards. Treatment improvements have probably had greater impact on the mortality reduction than mammography screening.