Occurrence of modified mycotoxins in Latin America: an up-to-date review.

The Latin America region has a considerable extent of varied climate conditions: from tropical, subtropical, and warm temperate to temperate. Among the surface territory, different agricultural products are produced, making them an important food source for human consumption. Fungal species commonly colonize those important agricultural products and often contaminate them with mycotoxins that have a major impact on health, welfare, and productivity. Nowadays, special attention is paid to modified mycotoxins, which are those that cannot be detected by conventional analytical methods. However, little data about their natural occurrence in food and feed is available, especially in Latin American countries, where, among all the countries in this region, only a few of them are working on this subject. Thus, the present review summarizes the published information available in order to determine the possible human exposure risk to these toxins.

Comparative assessment of individual and mixture chronic toxicity of glyphosate and glufosinate ammonium on amphibian tadpoles: A multibiomarker approach.

The aim of the present study was to assess the ecotoxicity of glyphosate and glufosinate ammonium mixtures on amphibian tadpoles and the potential impact of mixture in aquatic ecosystems health. The bonding properties of the mixture based on computational chemistry and an experimental bioassay on morphology, DNA damage and biochemical biomarkers on tadpoles of the common toad Rhinella arenarum were studied. The results of the density functional theory analysis showed trends of the pesticides clustering to form exothermic mixtures, suggesting the likelihood of hot-spots of pesticides in real aquatic systems. In addition, biological effects of individual pesticides and the mixture were studied on tadpoles over 45 days-chronic bioassay. The bioassay consisted of four treatments: a negative control (CO), 2.5 mg L-1 of a glyphosate-based herbicide (GBH), 2.5 mg L-1 of a glufosinate ammonium-based herbicide (GABH) and their 50:50 (% v/v) mixture (GBH-GABH). Morphological abnormality rates were significantly higher in all herbicide treatments with respect to CO at 48 h of exposure. Abdominal edema was the most frequent type of abnormality recorded at 48 h, 10 and 45 days of exposure. DNA damage was recorded in all herbicides treatments. Thyroxin increased only in GABH treatment. Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) significantly increased in GBH treatment, indicating a GBH-neurotoxic effect. Glutathione S-transferase decreased in GABH and GBH-GABH treatments, while catalase decreased in individual GBH and GABH treatments. Overall, teratogenicity, DNA damage, hormonal disruption (T4), and oxidative stress were greater in GABH-treated tadpoles than GBH-treated tadpoles. This study also highlights the robust chemical interaction between the active ingredients of both herbicides, which is reflected on antagonisms in most of analyzed biomarkers, as well as potentiation and additivity in others. Based on our results, the GABH had a higher toxicity than GBH for amphibian tadpoles.

Glyphosate and glufosinate ammonium, herbicides commonly used on genetically modified crops, and their interaction with microplastics: Ecotoxicity in anuran tadpoles.

The effects of glyphosate (GLY)-based and glufosinate ammonium (GA)-based herbicides (GBH and GABH, respectively) and polyethylene microplastic particles (PEMPs) on Scinax squalirostris tadpoles were assessed. Tadpoles were exposed to nominal concentrations of both herbicides (from 1.56 to 100 mg L-1) and PEMPs (60 mg L-1), either alone or in combination, and toxicity evaluated at 48 h. Acetylcholinesterase (AChE), carboxylesterase (CbE), and glutathione-S-transferase (GST) activities were analyzed at the three lowest concentrations (1.56, 3.12 and 6.25 mg L-1, survival rates >85%) of both herbicides alone and with PEMPs. Additionally, the thermochemistry of the interactions between the herbicides and polyethylene (PE) was analyzed by Density Functional Theory (DFT). The median-lethal concentration (LC50) was 43.53 mg L-1 for GBH, 38.56 mg L-1 for GBH + PEMPs, 7.69 for GABH, and 6.25 mg L-1 for GABH+PEMPs. The PEMP treatment increased GST but decreased CbE activity, whereas GBH and GABH treatments increased GST but decreased AChE activity. In general, the mixture of herbicides with PEMPs increased the effect observed in the individual treatments: the highest concentration of GBH + PEMPs increased GST activity, whereas GABH+PEMP treatments decreased both AChE and CbE activities. DFT analysis revealed spontaneous interactions between the herbicides and PE, leading to the formation of bonds at the herbicide-PE interface, significantly stronger for GA than for GLY. The experimental and theoretical findings of our study indicate that these interactions may lead to an increase in toxicity when pollutants are together, meaning potential environmental risk of these combinations, especially in the case of GA.

Neonatal exposure to a glyphosate-based herbicide alters the histofunctional differentiation of the ovaries and uterus in lambs.

The aim of the present study was to compare the effect of oral and subcutaneous exposure to a glyphosate-based herbicide (GBH) on the female reproductive system, specifically in the ovaries and uterus of prepubertal lambs. To this end, ewe lambs were exposed to a s.c. (n: 5) or an oral (n: 5) environmentally relevant dose of GBH (2 mg/kg/day) or to vehicle (controls, n: 12), from postnatal day (PND) 1 to PND14. Serum glyphosate and aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA) concentrations were measured on PND15 and PND45. The ovaries and uterus were obtained and weighed on PND45. Ovarian follicular dynamics and uterine morphological features were determined by picrosirius-hematoxylin staining. The proliferation marker Ki67 was evaluated by immunohistochemistry in ovarian and uterine samples. Glyphosate but not AMPA was detected in serum of exposed lambs on PND15, whereas neither glyphosate nor AMPA were detected on PND45. Controls were negative for glyphosate and AMPA on PND15 and PND45. GBH exposure did not affect ovarian or uterine weight. However, on PND45, the ovary of GBH-exposed lambs showed altered follicular dynamics, increased proliferation of granulosa and theca cells, and decreased mRNA expression of FSHR and GDF9, whereas their uterus showed decreased cell proliferation but no alterations in the histomorphology or gene expression. In conclusion, GBH exposure altered the ovarian follicular dynamics and gene expression, and the proliferative activity of the ovaries and uterus of lambs. It is noteworthy that all the adverse effects found in the ovaries and uterus of both GBH-exposed groups were similar, independently of the administration route.

Perinatal exposure to a glyphosate-based herbicide impairs female reproductive outcomes and induces second-generation adverse effects in Wistar rats.

Glyphosate-based herbicides (GBHs) are the most globally used herbicides raising the risk of environmental exposition. Here, we investigated whether perinatal exposure to low doses of a GBH alters the female reproductive performance, and/or induced second-generation effects related to congenital anomalies or growth alterations. Pregnant rats (F0) received a GBH through food, in a dose of 2 mg (GBH-LD: GBH-low dose group) or 200 mg (GBH-HD: GBH-high dose group) of glyphosate/kg bw/day from gestational day (GD) 9 until weaning. Body weight gain and vaginal canal-opening of F1 females were recorded. Sexually mature F1 females were mated to evaluate their reproductive performance by assessing the pregnancy rate, and on GD19, the number of corpora lutea, the implantation sites (IS) and resorption sites. To analyze second-generation effects on F2 offspring, we analyzed the fetal morphology on GD19, and assessed the fetal length and weight, and the placental weight. GBH exposure neither altered the body weight gain of F1 females, nor vaginal opening onset. Although all GBH-exposed F1 rats became pregnant, a lower number of IS was detected. F2 offspring from both GBH groups showed delayed growth, evidenced by lower fetal weight and length, associated with a higher incidence of small for gestational age fetuses. In addition, higher placental weight and placental index were found in F2 offspring from GBH-HD dams. Surprisingly, structural congenital anomalies (conjoined fetuses and abnormally developed limbs) were detected in the F2 offspring from GBH-HD group. In conclusion, perinatal exposure to low doses of a GBH impaired female reproductive performance and induced fetal growth retardation and structural congenital anomalies in F2 offspring.