U-SMILE: a brief version of the Short Multidimensional Inventory on Lifestyle Evaluation.

INTRODUCTION: Lifestyle Medicine comprises six domains: diet, substance use, physical activity, stress management, social connection, and sleep. The comprehensive assessment of lifestyle is challenging, but the "Short Multidimensional Inventory on Lifestyle Evaluation" (SMILE) was developed to fill out this gap. In this paper, we describe the development and the psychometric properties (internal consistency, concurrent and convergent validity) of a shorter version of the SMILE among university students. METHODS: Data from a cross-sectional study including 369 students from 10 Brazilian universities were used. Considering a theoretical nomological net, we performed exploratory factor analysis to obtain the most parsimonious, interpretable and good-fitting model. RESULTS: The final model was called U-SMILE, comprised 24 items, and presented acceptable internal consistency (Cronbach's α = 0.73, McDonald's ω = 0.79). To evaluate the concurrent validity of the U-SMILE, we compared it to the original SMILE and found a high correlation between the instruments (Spearman's r= 0.94). Furthermore, we evaluated convergent validity by examining the U-SMILE correlation with the PHQ-9 (Spearman's r= -0.517), and GAD-7 (Spearman's r= -0.356), two validated instruments to screen for depression and anxiety, respectively. DISCUSSION: Our findings suggest that the U-SMILE is a valid instrument for assessing lifestyle among university students. We recommend that the use of U-SMILE to evaluate overall lifestyle scores rather than individual domain scores. Finally, we discuss the importance of clarifying the definitions of lifestyle and related constructs in future research.

Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task and EF in two samples of adolescents in Brazil and United States.

Executive function (EF) is a foundational cognitive construct, which is linked to better cognitive and physical health throughout development. The present study examines the construct validity of an EF task, the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task (HTKS) that was initially developed for young children, in a sample of adolescents. We investigate the initial validity and range in scores between 54 adolescents from Brazil (mean age 12.58) and 56 US adolescents (mean age 12.48) from different socioeconomic contexts. Results indicated that the HTKS showed sufficient variability in both samples, especially for a measure of HTKS efficiency (completion time divided by the total score). The US sample performed better on all cognitive measures. For the Brazilian sample, regression models controlling for age and sex showed a significant relationship between the digit span working memory task, the HTKS total score, and the HTKS efficiency score. The Heart and Flowers cognitive flexibility measure was also included as an independent variable only for the Brazil sample, showing a significant relationship with both HTKS scores. For the US sample, results showed that only the HTKS efficiency score was significantly related to the digit span working memory task. This study highlights the importance of cognitive efficiency measures to achieve greater validity, as they can assess a broader range of performance with different populations. The HTKS showed good ecological validity with two adolescent samples, as it differentiated between populations with high and low socioeconomic status from different cultural contexts.

No association between psychiatric symptoms and doses of anabolic steroids in a cohort of male and female bodybuilders.

The use of androgenic-anabolic steroids (AAS) can be associated with psychiatric symptoms such as insomnia, anxiety and increased aggressiveness. Although dose-dependent effects have been observed in some controlled studies, this association is not always seen in the ecological use of AAS. This study utilized WADA's steroid profile of suspicious use of AAS, urinary detection of AAS metabolites and measurement of sexual hormones to confirm recent use of AAS in a cohort of 103 bodybuilders (75 males, 28 females). The majority of participants (61.2%) presented symptoms of agitation, insomnia, increased aggressiveness or depression in the last 3 months. About one-third of participants presented scores on the HAM-A anxiety scale equivalent to moderate to severe symptoms of anxiety. A minority of participants (12.6%) presented high to moderate scores on the BPQ aggressiveness scale. The majority of participants (73.8%) presented hyperthymic temperament in the BRIEF-TEMPS scale. There was no significant difference in the presence of psychiatric symptoms between males and females and no association between psychiatric symptoms and estimated weekly doses of AAS. A negative association was observed between scores on the BPQ scale (verbal aggression, anger and total score) and the time of AAS use. We discuss differences of AAS use between male and female bodybuilders and the screening of AAS use in the general population. Our findings highlight the importance of mental health awareness among people using AAS.

Brazilian version of the European Cross-Cultural Neuropsychological Test Battery (CNTB-BR): diagnostic accuracy across schooling levels

Objective: To translate, establish the diagnostic accuracy, and standardize the Brazilian Portuguese version of the European Cross-Cultural Neuropsychological Test Battery (CNTB) considering schooling level. Methods: We first completed an English-Brazilian Portuguese translation and back-translation of the CNTB. A total of 135 subjects aged over 60 years - 65 cognitively healthy (mean 72.83, SD = 7.71; mean education 9.42, SD = 7.69; illiterate = 25.8%) and 70 with Alzheimer's disease (AD) (mean 78.87, SD = 7.09; mean education 7.62, SD = 5.13; illiterate = 10%) - completed an interview and were screened for depression. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis was used to verify the accuracy of each CNTB test to separate AD from healthy controls in participants with low levels of education (≤ 4 years of schooling) and high levels of education (≥ 8 years of schooling). The optimal cutoff score was determined for each test. Results: The Recall of Pictures Test (RPT)-delayed recall and the Enhanced Cued Recall (ECR) had the highest power to separate AD from controls. The tests with the least impact from schooling were the Rowland Universal Dementia Assessment Scale (RUDAS), supermarket fluency, RPT naming, delayed recall and recognition, and ECR. Conclusions: The Brazilian Portuguese version of the CNTB was well comprehended by the participants. The cognitive tests that best discriminated patients with AD from controls in lower and higher schooling participants were RPT delayed recall and ECR, both of which evaluate memory.

Brazilian version of the European Cross-Cultural Neuropsychological Test Battery (CNTB-BR): diagnostic accuracy across schooling levels.

OBJECTIVE: To translate, establish the diagnostic accuracy, and standardize the Brazilian Portuguese version of the European Cross-Cultural Neuropsychological Test Battery (CNTB) considering schooling level. METHODS: We first completed an English-Brazilian Portuguese translation and back-translation of the CNTB. A total of 135 subjects aged over 60 years - 65 cognitively healthy (mean 72.83, SD = 7.71; mean education 9.42, SD = 7.69; illiterate = 25.8%) and 70 with Alzheimer's disease (AD) (mean 78.87, SD = 7.09; mean education 7.62, SD = 5.13; illiterate = 10%) - completed an interview and were screened for depression. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis was used to verify the accuracy of each CNTB test to separate AD from healthy controls in participants with low levels of education (≤ 4 years of schooling) and high levels of education (≥ 8 years of schooling). The optimal cutoff score was determined for each test. RESULTS: The Recall of Pictures Test (RPT)-delayed recall and the Enhanced Cued Recall (ECR) had the highest power to separate AD from controls. The tests with the least impact from schooling were the Rowland Universal Dementia Assessment Scale (RUDAS), supermarket fluency, RPT naming, delayed recall and recognition, and ECR. CONCLUSIONS: The Brazilian Portuguese version of the CNTB was well comprehended by the participants. The cognitive tests that best discriminated patients with AD from controls in lower and higher schooling participants were RPT delayed recall and ECR, both of which evaluate memory.

Is Strength Training as Effective as Aerobic Training for Depression in Older Adults? A Randomized Controlled Trial.

BACKGROUND: This study aimed to compare the effects of aerobic training (AT), strength training (ST) and low-intensity exercise in a control group (CG) as adjunct treatments to pharmacotherapy for major depressive disorder (MDD) in older persons. METHODS: Older persons clinically diagnosed with MDD (n = 27) and treated with antidepressants were blindly randomized into three groups: AT, ST and a CG. All patients were evaluated prior to and 12 weeks after the intervention. RESULTS: Compared with the CG, the AT and ST groups showed significant reductions in depressive symptoms (treatment -response = 50% decrease in the pre- to postintervention assessment) through the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (AT group: χ2, p = 0.044) and Beck Depression Inventory (ST group: χ2, p = 0.044). CONCLUSION: Adding AT or ST with moderate intensity to the usual treatment promoted a greater reduction of MDD symptoms.

Association among 2-min step test, functional level and diagnosis of dementia.

Aerobic capacity declines significantly throughout life, beginning at the age of 30 years and accelerating from 60 years, where a decline of 17% per decade is expected thereafter. OBJECTIVE: To investigate the association between aerobic capacity and a diagnosis of mild cognitive impairment (MCI), mild AD or moderate AD in older adults, considering the risk classification of functional loss of the Step test. METHODS: In this cross-sectional study, 93 patients (age >60 years) were evaluated (Healthy=36; MCI=18, AD=39). The step test was used to assess aerobic capacity, while overall cognitive status was measured using the MMSE. The groups were divided according to the risk classifications of functional loss into below or above the standard cut-off point for aerobic capacity. RESULTS: Subjects in the functional loss risk group were approximately ten to fourteen times more likely to be diagnosed with mild (OR:10.7; p=0.001) or moderate (OR.=14.7; p=0.002) AD than their fitter counterparts. Low aerobic fitness was also associated with the MCI condition (OR=4.5; p=0.05), but only after controlling for educational level, age and sex. In the overall sample (N=93), there was an association between aerobic capacity and MMSE performance (R2=0.35; p<0.001) after controlling for confounding variables. CONCLUSION: low aerobic capacity was associated with cognitive decline, and older adults at risk of functional loss on the STEP test had greater chance of being diagnosed with MCI or AD after controlling for age, sex and education.

A capacidade aeróbica diminui significativamente ao longo da vida, começando com a idade de 30 anos e acelerando a partir dos 60 anos, onde se prevê um declínio de 17% por década. OBJETIVO: Investigar a associação entre a capacidade aeróbica medida e o risco de desenvolvimento de comprometimento cognitivo leve (CCL), DA leve e moderado em idosos, considerando as classificações de risco de perda funcional para o teste do STEP. MÉTODOS: Nesse estudo de corte-transversal, foram avaliados 93 idosos (>60 anos) (saudáveis=36; CCL=18, DA=39). Para acessar a capacidade aeróbica foi utilizado o teste de STEP e o estado cognitivo global foi medido através do MEEM. Os grupos foram divididos em relação às classificações de risco de perda funcional em abaixo ou acima do ponto de corte padronizado para idosos. RESULTADOS: Idosos incluídos no grupo de risco de perda funcional tinham aproximadamente dez a catorze vezes mais chances de serem diagnosticados com DA leve (O.R:10.7; p=0.001) e moderado (O.R.=14.7; p=0.002), do que os seus pares mais bem condicionados. Menores níveis de capacidade aeróbica também foram associados com o diagnostico de CCL (O.R=4.5; p=0.05), entretanto apenas após controle por idade, escolaridade e sexo. Na amostra total (N=93) houve uma associação entre a capacidade aeróbica e o MEEM (R2=0.35; p<0.001) depois de controlado pelas variáveis confundidoras. CONCLUSÃO: Idosos que se encontram dentro da classificação de risco de perda funcional medida através do teste de STEP possuem maiores chances de desenvolverem CCL, Alzheimer leve e moderado mesmo após controle por idade, sexo e escolaridade.

Association among 2-min step test, functional level and diagnosis of dementia / Associação entre o nível de capacidade aeróbica e diagnóstico de demência

ABSTRACT: Aerobic capacity declines significantly throughout life, beginning at the age of 30 years and accelerating from 60 years, where a decline of 17% per decade is expected thereafter. Objective: To investigate the association between aerobic capacity and a diagnosis of mild cognitive impairment (MCI), mild AD or moderate AD in older adults, considering the risk classification of functional loss of the Step test. Methods: In this cross-sectional study, 93 patients (age >60 years) were evaluated (Healthy=36; MCI=18, AD=39). The step test was used to assess aerobic capacity, while overall cognitive status was measured using the MMSE. The groups were divided according to the risk classifications of functional loss into below or above the standard cut-off point for aerobic capacity. Results: Subjects in the functional loss risk group were approximately ten to fourteen times more likely to be diagnosed with mild (OR:10.7; p=0.001) or moderate (OR.=14.7; p=0.002) AD than their fitter counterparts. Low aerobic fitness was also associated with the MCI condition (OR=4.5; p=0.05), but only after controlling for educational level, age and sex. In the overall sample (N=93), there was an association between aerobic capacity and MMSE performance (R2=0.35; p<0.001) after controlling for confounding variables. Conclusion: low aerobic capacity was associated with cognitive decline, and older adults at risk of functional loss on the STEP test had greater chance of being diagnosed with MCI or AD after controlling for age, sex and education.

RESUMO: A capacidade aeróbica diminui significativamente ao longo da vida, começando com a idade de 30 anos e acelerando a partir dos 60 anos, onde se prevê um declínio de 17% por década. Objetivo: Investigar a associação entre a capacidade aeróbica medida e o risco de desenvolvimento de comprometimento cognitivo leve (CCL), DA leve e moderado em idosos, considerando as classificações de risco de perda funcional para o teste do STEP. Métodos: Nesse estudo de corte-transversal, foram avaliados 93 idosos (>60 anos) (saudáveis=36; CCL=18, DA=39). Para acessar a capacidade aeróbica foi utilizado o teste de STEP e o estado cognitivo global foi medido através do MEEM. Os grupos foram divididos em relação às classificações de risco de perda funcional em abaixo ou acima do ponto de corte padronizado para idosos. Resultados: Idosos incluídos no grupo de risco de perda funcional tinham aproximadamente dez a catorze vezes mais chances de serem diagnosticados com DA leve (O.R:10.7; p=0.001) e moderado (O.R.=14.7; p=0.002), do que os seus pares mais bem condicionados. Menores níveis de capacidade aeróbica também foram associados com o diagnostico de CCL (O.R=4.5; p=0.05), entretanto apenas após controle por idade, escolaridade e sexo. Na amostra total (N=93) houve uma associação entre a capacidade aeróbica e o MEEM (R2=0.35; p<0.001) depois de controlado pelas variáveis confundidoras. Conclusão: Idosos que se encontram dentro da classificação de risco de perda funcional medida através do teste de STEP possuem maiores chances de desenvolverem CCL, Alzheimer leve e moderado mesmo após controle por idade, sexo e escolaridade.

Physical Activity and Incident Depression: A Meta-Analysis of Prospective Cohort Studies.

OBJECTIVE: The authors examined the prospective relationship between physical activity and incident depression and explored potential moderators. METHOD: Prospective cohort studies evaluating incident depression were searched from database inception through Oct. 18, 2017, on PubMed, PsycINFO, Embase, and SPORTDiscus. Demographic and clinical data, data on physical activity and depression assessments, and odds ratios, relative risks, and hazard ratios with 95% confidence intervals were extracted. Random-effects meta-analyses were conducted, and the potential sources of heterogeneity were explored. Methodological quality was assessed using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale. RESULTS: A total of 49 unique prospective studies (N=266,939; median proportion of males across studies, 47%) were followed up for 1,837,794 person-years. Compared with people with low levels of physical activity, those with high levels had lower odds of developing depression (adjusted odds ratio=0.83, 95% CI=0.79, 0.88; I2=0.00). Furthermore, physical activity had a protective effect against the emergence of depression in youths (adjusted odds ratio=0.90, 95% CI=0.83, 0.98), in adults (adjusted odds ratio=0.78, 95% CI=0.70, 0.87), and in elderly persons (adjusted odds ratio=0.79, 95% CI=0.72, 0.86). Protective effects against depression were found across geographical regions, with adjusted odds ratios ranging from 0.65 to 0.84 in Asia, Europe, North America, and Oceania, and against increased incidence of positive screen for depressive symptoms (adjusted odds ratio=0.84, 95% CI=0.79, 0.89) or major depression diagnosis (adjusted odds ratio=0.86, 95% CI=0.75, 0.98). No moderators were identified. Results were consistent for unadjusted odds ratios and for adjusted and unadjusted relative risks/hazard ratios. Overall study quality was moderate to high (Newcastle-Ottawa Scale score, 6.3). Although significant publication bias was found, adjusting for this did not change the magnitude of the associations. CONCLUSIONS: Available evidence supports the notion that physical activity can confer protection against the emergence of depression regardless of age and geographical region.

The effects of regular physical activity on anxiety symptoms in healthy older adults: a systematic review.

OBJECTIVE: Anxiety symptoms are common in older adults with or without anxiety disorders. Pharmacological options may be limited for these patients. Alternative treatments, such as physical activity (PA), are often indicated, although few trials have evaluated their efficacy. The aim of this review was to evaluate the efficacy of regular PA on improving anxiety symptoms in older adults without anxiety disorders. Potential neuroendocrine, inflammatory, and oxidative mechanisms, as well as cognitive factors to explain these effects are also discussed. METHODS: A systematic literature review was performed to identify randomized controlled trials, cross-sectional, cohort, and case-control studies, as well as case series including healthy previously sedentary older adults. We searched the PubMed and Web of Science databases for articles published in English, with no set time limits. RESULTS: Eight studies evaluating the effect of PA on anxiety symptoms in healthy older adults were included in this review. In all studies, regular and supervised PA was directly related to decreased anxiety symptoms in older individuals. CONCLUSION: Regular PA may be effective for improving anxiety symptoms in older adults. More studies are needed to identify the ideal PA modality, frequency, duration, and intensity for optimizing the positive effects of exercise on anxiety in this population.

The effects of regular physical activity on anxiety symptoms in healthy older adults: a systematic review

Objective: Anxiety symptoms are common in older adults with or without anxiety disorders. Pharmacological options may be limited for these patients. Alternative treatments, such as physical activity (PA), are often indicated, although few trials have evaluated their efficacy. The aim of this review was to evaluate the efficacy of regular PA on improving anxiety symptoms in older adults without anxiety disorders. Potential neuroendocrine, inflammatory, and oxidative mechanisms, as well as cognitive factors to explain these effects are also discussed. Methods: A systematic literature review was performed to identify randomized controlled trials, cross-sectional, cohort, and case-control studies, as well as case series including healthy previously sedentary older adults. We searched the PubMed and Web of Science databases for articles published in English, with no set time limits. Results: Eight studies evaluating the effect of PA on anxiety symptoms in healthy older adults were included in this review. In all studies, regular and supervised PA was directly related to decreased anxiety symptoms in older individuals. Conclusion: Regular PA may be effective for improving anxiety symptoms in older adults. More studies are needed to identify the ideal PA modality, frequency, duration, and intensity for optimizing the positive effects of exercise on anxiety in this population.

Motor Coordination Correlates with Academic Achievement and Cognitive Function in Children.

The relationship between exercise and cognition is an important topic of research that only recently began to unravel. Here, we set out to investigate the relation between motor skills, cognitive function, and school performance in 45 students from 8 to 14 years of age. We used a cross-sectional design to evaluate motor coordination (Touch Test Disc), agility (Shuttle Run Speed-running back and forth), school performance (Academic Achievement Test), the Stroop test, and six sub-tests of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-IV (WISC-IV). We found, that the Touch Test Disc was the best predictor of school performance (R (2) = 0.20). Significant correlations were also observed between motor coordination and several indices of cognitive function, such as the total score of the Academic Achievement Test (AAT; Spearman's rho = 0.536; p ≤ 0.001), as well as two WISC-IV sub-tests: block design (R = -0.438; p = 0.003) and cancelation (rho = -0.471; p = 0.001). All the other cognitive variables pointed in the same direction, and even correlated with agility, but did not reach statistical significance. Altogether, the data indicate that visual motor coordination and visual selective attention, but not agility, may influence academic achievement and cognitive function. The results highlight the importance of investigating the correlation between physical skills and different aspects of cognition.

Effects of Sprint versus High-Intensity Aerobic Interval Training on Cross-Country Mountain Biking Performance: A Randomized Controlled Trial.

OBJECTIVES: The current study compared the effects of high-intensity aerobic training (HIT) and sprint interval training (SIT) on mountain biking (MTB) race simulation performance and physiological variables, including peak power output (PPO), lactate threshold (LT) and onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA). METHODS: Sixteen mountain bikers (mean ± SD: age 32.1 ± 6.4 yr, body mass 69.2 ± 5.3 kg and VO2max 63.4 ± 4.5 mL∙kg(-1)∙min(-1)) completed graded exercise and MTB performance tests before and after six weeks of training. The HIT (7-10 x [4-6 min--highest sustainable intensity / 4-6 min-CR100 10-15]) and SIT (8-12 x [30 s--all-out intensity / 4 min--CR100 10-15]) protocols were included in the participants' regular training programs three times per week. RESULTS: Post-training analysis showed no significant differences between training modalities (HIT vs. SIT) in body mass, PPO, LT or OBLA (p = 0.30 to 0.94). The Cohen's d effect size (ES) showed trivial to small effects on group factor (p = 0.00 to 0.56). The interaction between MTB race time and training modality was almost significant (p = 0.08), with a smaller ES in HIT vs. SIT training (ES = -0.43). A time main effect (pre- vs. post-phases) was observed in MTB race performance and in several physiological variables (p = 0.001 to 0.046). Co-variance analysis revealed that the HIT (p = 0.043) group had significantly better MTB race performance measures than the SIT group. Furthermore, magnitude-based inferences showed HIT to be of likely greater benefit (83.5%) with a lower probability of harmful effects (0.8%) compared to SIT. CONCLUSION: The results of the current study suggest that six weeks of either HIT or SIT may be effective at increasing MTB race performance; however, HIT may be a preferable strategy. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT01944865.

AFFECTIVE RESPONSES TO PRESCRIBED AND SELF-SELECTED STRENGTH TRAINING INTENSITIES.

This study was an evaluation of the effects of self-selected intensity and three prescribed intensities of strength exercises on affective responses. 16 healthy active male participants (M age = 25.1 yr., SD = 5.5; M height = 168.0 cm, SD = 31.8; M weight = 84.4 kg, SD = 8.6) were randomly assigned to a control condition without exercise (Control); three prescribed exercise intensities at 40% of one-repetition maximum (1RM), 60% 1RM, and 80% 1RM; and one self-selected intensity (Self-selected). Affective response was assessed by the Feeling Scale and the Felt Arousal Scale. All prescribed intensities showed increased activation and only the session at 80% 1RM showed reduction valence compared to the Control condition. Thus, the affective response to strength training does not seem to be influenced by exercise intensity.

Differences in exercise intensity seems to influence the affective responses in self-selected and imposed exercise: a meta-analysis.

Self-selected exercise seems to promote positive affective responses due to the perceived autonomy associated with it. The objective of the present study was to determine the magnitude of differences in Feeling Scale (FS) responses during self-selected and imposed exercise sessions. The PRISMA Statement was adopted for this meta-analysis. The search used PubMed, Scopus, PsycINFO, and ISI Web of Knowledge databases. A total of 10 studies that compared the effects of self-selected and imposed exercise sessions on acute FS responses were included. The screening strategy included: exclusion of studies that were duplicated between databases, abstract screening, and text screening. The standardized mean difference (SMD) between self-selected and imposed exercise sessions categorized in five intensities (equal intensity: both exercises were performed at the same intensity, below lactate/ventilatory threshold (LT/VT): imposed exercise was performed at an intensity below the LT/VT, at LT/VT: imposed exercise was performed at the LT/VT intensity, above LT/VT: imposed exercise was performed at an intensity above the LT/VT, and different intensity: both exercises were performed at different intensities and the intensity of imposed session was not reported relative to LT/VT) and an overall SMD were calculated. Self-selected exercise was used as the reference condition. The subtotal SMD values were as follows: -0.10 (equal intensity), -0.36 (below LT/VT), -0.57 (at LT/VT), -1.30 (above LT/VT), and -0.09 (different intensity) and the overall SMD was -0.41. The results of the present study indicate that the difference between affective responses in self-selected and imposed exercise sessions is dependent on the intensity of the imposed exercise session.

We need to move more: Neurobiological hypotheses of physical exercise as a treatment for Parkinson's disease.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is one of the most prevalent neurodegenerative diseases in the world. The degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra and chronic inflammation impair specific brain areas, which in turn result in lesser motor control, behavioral changes and cognitive decline. Nowadays, drug-treatments are the foremost approaches in treating PD. However, exercise has been shown to have powerful effects on PD, based on several neurobiological mechanisms. These effects may decrease the risk of developing PD by 33%. However, these mechanisms are unclear and little explored. Among several mechanisms, we propose two specific hypotheses: 1. Physical exercise reduces chronic oxidative stress and stimulates mitochondria biogenesis and up-regulation of authophagy in PD patients. Moreover, antioxidant enzymes (e.g. superoxide dismutase) become more active and effective in response to physical exercise. 2. Exercise stimulates neurotransmitter (e.g. dopamine) and trophic factors (BDNF, GDNF, FGF-2, IGF-1, among others) synthesis. These neurochemical phenomena promote neuroplasticity, which, in turn, decreases neural apoptosis and may delay the neurodegeneration process, preventing or decreasing PD development and symptoms, respectively.

Comparison of strength training, aerobic training, and additional physical therapy as supplementary treatments for Parkinson's disease: pilot study.

INTRODUCTION: Physical rehabilitation is commonly used in patients with Parkinson's disease (PD) to improve their health and alleviate the symptoms. OBJECTIVE: We compared the effects of three programs, strength training (ST), aerobic training (AT), and physiotherapy, on motor symptoms, functional capacity, and electroencephalographic (EEG) activity in PD patients. METHODS: Twenty-two patients were recruited and randomized into three groups: AT (70% of maximum heart rate), ST (80% of one repetition maximum), and physiotherapy (in groups). Subjects participated in their respective interventions twice a week for 12 weeks. The assessments included measures of disease symptoms (Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale [UPDRS]), functional capacity (Senior Fitness Test), and EEG before and after 12 weeks of intervention. RESULTS: The PD motor symptoms (UPDRS-III) in the group of patients who performed ST and AT improved by 27.5% (effect size [ES]=1.25, confidence interval [CI]=-0.11, 2.25) and 35% (ES=1.34, CI=-0.16, 2.58), respectively, in contrast to the physiotherapy group, which showed a 2.9% improvement (ES=0.07, CI=-0.85, 0.99). Furthermore, the functional capacity of all three groups improved after the intervention. The mean frequency of the EEG analysis mainly showed the effect of the interventions on the groups (F=11.50, P=0.0001). CONCLUSION: ST and AT in patients with PD are associated with improved outcomes in disease symptoms and functional capacity.

Acute effects of exercise on mood and EEG activity in healthy young subjects: a systematic review.

Electroencephalography has been used to establish the relationship among cortical activity, exercise and mood, such as asymmetry, absolute and relative power. The purpose of this study was to systematically review the influence of cortical activity on mood state induced by exercise. The Preferred Reporting Items in Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses was followed in this study. The studies were retrieved from MEDLINE/PubMed, ISI Web of Knowledge and SciELO. Search was conducted in all databases using the following terms: EEG asymmetry, sLORETA, exercise, with affect, mood and emotions. Based on the defined criteria, a total of 727 articles were found in the search conducted in the literature (666 in Pubmed, 54 in ISI Web of Science, 2 in SciELO and 5 in other data sources). Total of 11 studies were selected which properly met the criteria for this review. Nine out of 11 studies used the frontal asymmetry, four used absolute and relative power and one used sLORETA. With regard to changes in cortical activity and mood induced by exercise, six studies attributed this result to different intensities, one to duration, one to type of exercise and one to fitness level. In general, EEG measures showed contradictory evidence of its ability to predict or modulate psychological mood states through exercise intervention.

Continuous and high-intensity interval training: which promotes higher pleasure?

OBJECTIVES: To compare the psychological responses to continuous (CT) and high-intensity interval training (HIT) sessions. METHODS: Fifteen men attended one CT session and one HIT session. During the first visit, the maximum heart rate, VO2Peak and respiratory compensation point (RCP) were determined through a maximal cardiopulmonary exercise test. The HIT stimulus intensity corresponded to 100% of VO2Peak, and the average intensity of both sessions was maintained at 15% below the RCP. The order of the sessions was randomized. Psychological and physiological variables were recorded before, during and after each session. RESULTS: There were no significant differences between the average percentages of VO2 during the two exercise sessions (HIT: 73.3% vs. CT: 71.8%; p = 0.779). Lower responses on the feeling scale (p≤0.01) and higher responses on the felt arousal scale (p≤0.001) and the rating of perceived exertion were obtained during the HIT session. Despite the more negative feeling scale responses observed during HIT and a greater feeling of fatigue (measured by Profile of Mood States) afterwards (p<0.01), the physical activity enjoyment scale was not significantly different between the two conditions (p = 0.779). CONCLUSION: Despite the same average intensity for both conditions, similar psychological responses under HIT and CT conditions were not observed, suggesting that the higher dependence on anaerobic metabolism during HIT negatively influenced the feeling scale responses.