Gene expression profiling identifies molecular subgroups among nodal peripheral T-cell lymphomas.

The classification of peripheral T-cell lymphomas (PTCL) is still a matter of debate. To establish a molecular classification of PTCL, we analysed 59 primary nodal T-cell lymphomas using cDNA microarrays, including 56 PTCL and three T-lymphoblastic lymphoma (T-LBL). The expression profiles could discriminate angioimmunoblastic lymphoma, anaplastic large-cell lymphoma and T-LBL. In contrast, cases belonging to the broad category of 'PTCL, unspecified' (PTCL-U) did not share a single molecular profile. Using a multiclass predictor, we could separate PTCL-U into three molecular subgroups called U1, U2 and U3. The U1 gene expression signature included genes known to be associated with poor outcome in other tumors, such as CCND2. The U2 subgroup was associated with overexpression of genes involved in T-cell activation and apoptosis, including NFKB1 and BCL-2. The U3 subgroup was mainly defined by overexpression of genes involved in the IFN/JAK/STAT pathway. It comprised a majority of histiocyte-rich PTCL samples. Gene Ontology annotations revealed different functional profile for each subgroup. These results suggest the existence of distinct subtypes of PTCL-U with specific molecular profiles, and thus provide a basis to improve their classification and to develop new therapeutic targets.

[DNA-array analysis of the expression profile of apoptosis gene regulators in malignant lymphoma]. / Analyse par "biopuces" du profil d'expression des gènes régulateurs de l'apoptose des lymphomes malins.

Microarray technology has recently led to the identification of molecular prognostic subgroups in non Hodgkin's lymphomas. In order to determine the usefulness of ready-made macroarrays as routine diagnosis tools in haemato-pathology, we have analysed lymph node biopsies using a cDNA macroarray containing genes involved in apoptosis, including caspases. Nine biopsy specimens were analysed on total frozen tissues: 4 samples of B-cell follicular lymphoma (FL), two of B-cell diffuse large cell lymphoma (DLCL), and three of non-neoplastic lymph nodes from benign lymphadenitis. Eight cell populations were sorted from fresh tissues: malignant B-cells from 2 FL cases and 2 DLCL cases, reactive B-cells from 1 benign lymph nodes, reactive T-cells from 1 benign lymph node, virgin (mantle zone) B-cells and germinal center (GC) B-cells from benign tonsils. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) on paraffin sections was performed for localization of caspases 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, and 9. In the clustered array data, sorted cells from samples sharing common histological lesions grouped together, whereas the array/histology correlation was less satisfactory for tissues. The expression profiles of both array and IHC methods were correlated for most caspases and samples. Variations in array profiles of sorted cell populations can be statistically associated with specific histological features, suggesting a possible diagnostic application of ready-made "Apoptosis macroarrays" in haematopathology.

Caspase 7 downregulation as an immunohistochemical marker of colonic carcinoma.

Caspases play a crucial role as apoptotic effectors; their potential implication in tumorigenesis remains to be clarified. We investigated the expression and function of caspases 7, 8, and 9 in colon cancer tissues and cell lines. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) showed downregulation of caspase 7 (22 of 26 cases) and caspase 9 (12 of 26 cases) in colonic cancer samples compared with normal mucosa on the same tissue section. Caspase 8 expression was unchanged or slightly upregulated (19 of 27 cases). The combination of IHC and Western blot analysis showed expression of the proforms of caspases 7, 8, and 9 in HT29-19A and HT29-16E colonic carcinoma cell lines. Apoptosis could be induced by staurosporine in both HT29 cell lines, with a sensitivity similar to that of the HGT cell line, but lower than that of the DAUDI cell line. Apoptosis induction in HT29 cells was concomitant with processing of caspases 3, 7, 8, and 9 and was inhibited by the caspase inhibitor ZVAD. Our data show that (1) human colon cancer cells downregulate caspase 7 and, to a smaller extent, caspase 9 in vivo and (2) in vitro staurosporine-induced apoptosis of colonic cancer cells involves caspases 7 and 9. Caspase 7 deficiency thus appears as a new immunohistochemical marker of colonic neoplasia; its correction represents a potential basis for new therapies.

Caspases: conductors of the cell death machinery in lymphoma cells.

The present review focuses on recent insights into the regulation of caspases by other components of the apoptotic pathway, including the mechanisms by which caspase activation influence the death of lymphoma cells. In the light of our recent findings and similar observations of other investigators, it is likely that lymphoma cells possess the complete caspase machinery required for the apoptotic process. Inhibition of caspases activation appears as a potential mechanism to explain apoptotic defects of malignant B-cells, and thus may constitute the basis for new cancer therapies.

The C-class chemokine lymphotactin costimulates the apoptosis of human CD4(+) T cells.

Clonal expansion of activated T cells is controlled by homeostatic mechanisms leading to cell death of a large proportion of the cells. The CD3/TcR pathway induces cell death, mostly when triggered in the absence of costimulatory signal. The unique T cell-specific chemokine of the C class, lymphotactin (Lptn), has recently been shown to inhibit the production of Th1-type lymphokines in human CD4(+) T cells. The present study shows the ability of Lptn to costimulate the death of CD4(+) T lymphocytes triggered through CD3/TCR. The Lptn-mediated increased cell death exhibited characteristic features of apoptosis, as mainly determined by DNA fragmentation and exposure of an apoptotic-specific mitochondrial antigen. This apoptosis was dependent on Fas/FasL signaling, was not rescued by addition of interleukin 2, and proceeded with a predominant processing of both initiator procaspase-9 and effector procaspase-7. These caspase activities were further evidenced by specific cleavage of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) and CD3/TCR zeta-chain, but not DNA fragmentation factor (DFF45). This study demonstrates that the functional repertoire of Lptn in the regulation of human CD4(+) T-lymphocyte activation includes the ability to costimulate apoptosis.

Correlation between apoptosis microarray gene expression profiling and histopathological lymph node lesions.

AIMS: Microarray technology has recently led to the identification of molecular prognostic subgroups in non-Hodgkin's lymphomas. To determine the usefulness of ready made macroarrays as routine diagnostic tools in haematopathology, lymph node biopsies were analysed using a cDNA macroarray containing genes involved in apoptosis, including caspases. METHODS: Nine biopsy specimens were analysed using total frozen tissues: four samples of B cell follicular lymphoma, two of B cell diffuse large cell lymphoma, and three of non-neoplastic lymph nodes from benign lymphadenitis. Nine cell populations were sorted from fresh tissues: malignant B cells from two patients with follicular lymphoma and two with diffuse large cell lymphoma, reactive B cells from two benign lymph nodes, reactive T cells from one benign lymph node, and virgin (mantle zone) B cells and germinal centre B cells from benign tonsils. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) on paraffin wax sections was performed for the localisation of caspases 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, and 9. RESULTS: In the clustered array data, sorted cells from samples sharing common histological lesions were grouped together, whereas the array/histology correlation was less satisfactory for tissues. The expression profiles of both the array and IHC methods correlated for most caspases and samples. CONCLUSIONS: Variations in array profiles of sorted cell populations can be associated with specific histological features, suggesting a possible diagnostic application of ready made apoptosis macroarrays in haematopathology.

Frequent nuclear localization of ICAD and cytoplasmic co-expression of caspase-8 and caspase-3 in human lymphomas.

Lymphoma cells often display in vitro resistance to FAS-induced apoptosis, in which caspases act as crucial cell death effectors. Following FAS stimulation, caspase-8 activates caspase-3, which in turn activates the caspase-activated DNAse (CAD) by proteolysis of its inhibitor (ICAD). To investigate the mechanism of FAS resistance, the expression of caspase-8 was analysed by immunohistochemistry, together with that of the substrates caspase-3 and ICAD, in 52 representative samples from non Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL), 12 from Hodgkin's disease (HD), and eight benign lymphoid tissues. In benign tissues, caspase-8 was co-expressed with caspase-3 in the cytoplasm in germinal centre (GC) cells and was co-expressed with ICAD in the nuclei of the mantle and marginal zone cells. ICAD expression was weak or absent in GC cells. Cytoplasmic staining for both caspase-8 and caspase-3 was present in 11/12 cases of diffuse large cell B-NHL. Caspase-8 positivity was nuclear and cytoplasmic in 9/9 follicular NHLs, in 5/5 mantle cell NHLs and in 6/6 marginal zone NHLs. Five out of six peripheral T-cell NHLs expressed cytoplasmic caspase-8. Ten out of the 12 HD cases lacked significant cytoplasmic staining for caspase-3 and caspase-8 in the majority of Reed-Sternberg cells. All lymphoma cases exhibited predominant nuclear ICAD positivity. Subcellular fractionation analysis of three lymphoma samples and normal mantle zone cells confirmed that ICAD and caspase-8 were at least partly localized in the nucleus. These results show that the profile of caspase-8 expression is correlated with histological lymphoma subtypes; that caspase-8 is co-expressed with caspase-3 in GC cells and their neoplastic counterparts; that ICAD has an immunohistochemical nuclear localization in vivo; and that caspase-8 and ICAD can be co-expressed in the nuclei of mantle zone and marginal zone cells; their unexpected nuclear localization allows a reappraisal of the biochemical cascade of caspase activation.

Quantitative analysis detects ubiquitous expression of apoptotic regulators in B cell non-Hodgkin's lymphomas.

To determine whether the expression levels of Bcl-2 family apoptotic regulators are correlated with the histopathological heterogeneity of B cell non-Hodgkin's lymphomas (NHL), we quantified their expression in malignant B cell populations isolated from 33 biopsy samples, including small lymphocytic lymphoma (SLL, n = 9), mantle cell lymphoma (MCL, n = 8), follicular lymphoma (FL, n = 8), and diffuse large cell lymphoma (DLCL, n = 8). Normal B cells purified from reactive lymph nodes and tonsil (n = 3) were used as controls. Cell lysates were analyzed by Western blotting, and signals quantified by densitometry. Expression of Bcl-2 and its homologues, Bcl-xL, Bcl-xS, Bax, Bad, Bak and Bag-1, was detected in all NHL cases, with wide variations between histological subtypes and within each subtype. Statistically significant differences were: (1) a higher level of Bad expression in DLCL compared to FL and MCL; (2) a lower level of Bak expression in FL compared to DLCL, SLL and MCL; and (3) a higher Bag-1 expression level in FL compared to SLL. When compared to NHL cells, normal B cells showed a higher level of Bax expression, and a lower level of Bcl-xL expression. Thus, quantitative analysis shows ubiquitous expression of Bcl-2 family proteins in normal and neoplastic B cells; the variations in expression levels may contribute to both the B-NHL clinicopathological diversity and the different apoptotic sensitivities of normal B cells vs B-NHL cells.

FADD expression and caspase activation in B-cell lymphomas resistant to Fas-mediated apoptosis.

We have previously shown that malignant B cells from non-Hodgkin's lymphomas (NHL) are resistant to Fas-mediated apoptosis. To determine the mechanisms underlying this resistance, we analysed by Western blotting the expression of several apoptotic regulators, caspase 3, caspase 8, FADD and poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) in fresh lymphoma cells, isolated from 16 B-NHL biopsy samples of different histological subtypes, and displaying variable levels of Fas expression. The profiles of expression of these apoptotic regulators were monitored in cell lysates at different times following Fas with or without CD40 stimulation. Expression of FADD and of the uncleaved forms of PARP, caspase 3 and caspase 8 were detected in all untreated NHL samples. Low levels of PARP cleavage were noted in three untreated samples. Fas stimulation alone induced neither significant apoptosis nor significant changes in the expression profiles of FADD, caspases 3 and 8 and PARP in the 16 samples, except for variations in FADD and caspase 8 expression levels in a minority of samples. Fas/CD40 co-stimulation induced apoptosis and cleavage of caspase 3, caspase 8 and PARP in the five NHLs tested; expression of FADD was not modified. Our results showed (1) that induction of apoptosis in B-NHLs by Fas/CD40 co-stimulation used the same caspase executioner machinery as the normal Fas pathway, and (2) that NHL cells which resisted Fas-mediated apoptosis displayed no defect in either expression or functionality of caspases 3 and 8, nor in FADD expression. The dysfunction underlying NHL resistance to apoptosis must therefore lie upstream of caspase 8, or could alternatively be influenced by anti-apoptotic regulators of the Bcl-2 family.

[Use of high-density filters ("DNA arrays") for gene expression analysis in human tissues]. / Utilisation de filtres à haute densité (<>) pour l'analyse de l'expression génique dans les tissus humains.

Most technical strategies for the analysis of gene expression in tissues are able to study only one protein or RNA product at the same time. A new recent method referred to as <> or <> is able to analyze simultaneously several hundreds of different genes. The DNA array is a nylon membrane on which are spotted equal amounts of cDNAs corresponding to different genes. This filter is hybridized with a <> probe synthesized with mRNA derived from the tissue analyzed. The result gives a global profile of gene expression within the tissue and allows quantitative and comparative analysis between different tissues or cell types.

Analysis of BAX expression in human tissues using the anti-BAX, 4F11 monoclonal antibody on paraffin sections.

BAX, a heterodimer partner of BCL-2, is an apoptosis inducer. We aimed to characterize the distribution of the BAX protein in normal adult human tissues using immunohistochemistry (IHC). The monoclonal antibody anti-BAX 4F11 was used on paraffin sections: immunodetection of BCL-2 was performed simultaneously on serial sections. The specificity of BAX IHC staining was verified by Western blot analysis. IHC positivity was correlated with the detection of a specific 21 kDa band on Western blots. BAX immunostaining was mainly cytosolic and occasionally on the nuclear membrane. Amounts of BAX protein were high in liver, renal tubules, endocrine islets of the pancreas, gastric glands, cardiac muscle, epididymis, lymph node germinal centers, and neurons; intermediate in the colon, stomach, bronchus. Fallopian tube, salivary gland, breast, thymus, spleen, and testis; low or undetectable in the other tissues. BAX IHC positivity correlated with apoptotic features in neurons and germinal center lymphocytes. There was no strict correlation between the IHC profiles of BAX and BCL-2 expression, although a reciprocal pattern of staining was observed in lymph node and colon. This report shows the usefulness the monoclonal antibody anti-BAX 4F11 on paraffin sections and demonstrates that the human BAX tissular distribution is close to, but not similar, to the profile observed in the mouse. The widespread BAX expression suggests that BAX alone is insufficient to trigger cell death in human tissues. BAX may either modulate the role of other regulators of apoptosis or carry out functions unrelated to apoptosis.

Sensitivity to Fas-mediated apoptosis is null or weak in B-cell non-Hodgkin's lymphomas and is moderately increased by CD40 ligation.

The Fas receptor (APO-1/CD95) is capable of inducing apoptosis of lymphoid cells and is expressed in some non-Hodgkin's lymphomas (NHLs). Fas expression is up-regulated at the surface of normal B cells upon triggering of the CD40 receptor. In this report, we investigated the sensitivity of NHLs to Fas-mediated apoptosis induced by anti-Fas monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) and its possible modulation by CD40 ligation in 18 NHL biopsy samples of various histological subtypes. Flow cytometric analysis showed that the fraction of Fas-expressing lymphoma cells was highly variable from sample to sample (from 1% to 93%, mean value 46%). The frequency of apoptotic cells was not significantly increased upon treatment with an anti-Fas MAb compared with control MAb in the 18 NHL cases analysed. The sensitivity of lymphoma cells to Fas-mediated apoptosis was correlated neither with the histological subtypes nor with the level of Fas expression. Activation of neoplastic B cells by CD40 ligation resulted in significant increases in Fas expression and Fas-induced apoptosis among the five B-NHL cases tested. The overall increase in apoptotic rates was moderate and remained lower in tumour samples than in control CD40-activated normal tonsil B cells. Altogether, our results indicate that the sensitivity to Fas-induced apoptosis is null or weak in NHL cells, irrespective of their histological subtype, and that it can be increased to a moderate and variable degree by CD40 ligation on neoplastic B cells. This may be an impediment to the development of Fas-based therapies for NHLs.

BCL-X and the apoptotic machinery of lymphoma cells.

The BCL-X gene belongs to the family of BCL-2 homologues and plays an important role in the regulation of programmed cell death (PCD) in normal lymphoid tissues. BCL-X is transcribed into 2 mRNAs through alternative splicing. The protein product of the larger BCL-X mRNA (BCL-XL) functions as a PCD repressor. The second mRNA species, BCL-XS, encodes a protein capable of accelerating cell death. BCL-XL is a potential contributor to the pathogenesis of malignant lymphomas because the BCL-XL isoform is predominantly expressed by the neoplastic cells in the majority of lymphoma cases. This review is focused on the possible influence of BCL-X and other PCD regulatory agents on lymphomagenesis.

FGF7 protein expression in human breast carcinomas.

FGFs, especially FGF7, are thought to play an important role in the stroma-epithelium interactions that take place in several tissues, including the prostate and mammary glands. Using an immunohistochemistry approach, FGF7 protein expression was measured in a series of 80 human breast carcinomas. FGF7 was found to be expressed in two-thirds of cases studied, either in the stroma or in the tumour cells. Although it did not reach significance level, a tendency was noted for FGF7 expression to be associated with the most differentiated and least aggressive tumours.

In vivo expression of the CTLA4 inhibitory receptor in malignant and reactive cells from human lymphomas.

The CTLA4 receptor is a CD28 homologue which induces inhibitory effect on activated T-cells. Peripheral T-cells proliferate spontaneously in CTLA4-deficient mice. These results led to an analysis of CTLA4 expression in human lymphomas (n = 82) including Hodgkin's disease (HD) and non-Hodgkin's lymphomas (NHLs), using immunohistochemistry. CTLA4 was present in neoplastic cells from most (10/11) T-cell malignancies, except for anaplastic and lymphoblastic subtypes (0/4). Malignant B-cells from rare (3/55) B-NHLs (all of follicular subtype) were also CTLA4-positive. Other B-NHLs (52/55) were negative in malignant B-cells and occasionally positive in T-cells. Reactive small lymphocytes, but not Reed-Sternberg cells, from all (12/12) HD cases were strongly CTLA4-positive. The CTLA4 ligands CD80 and CD86 were simultaneously expressed in most CTLA4-negative lymphoma cases. CTLA4 is thus expressed either in the reactive or in the malignant cell populations, depending on the lymphoma subtype. These results provide new insights leading towards therapeutic strategies based either on enhancement of anti-tumour immunity by CTLA4 blockade in reactive lymphocytes or on triggering of a CTLA4-mediated inhibitory pathway in lymphoma cells.

Malignant and reactive cells from human lymphomas frequently express Fas ligand but display a different sensitivity to Fas-mediated apoptosis.

Fas ligand (FasL) is capable of inducing apoptosis of lymphoid cells by cross-linking with its natural receptor, Fas. We aimed to investigate the possible role of the Fas/FasL-mediated apoptosis in the development of human lymphomas. FasL mRNA was detected by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction in 38 out of 63 lymphoma biopsy specimens representative of various subtypes of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL) and Hodgkin's disease. FasL was co-expressed with Fas mRNA in most cases. Flow cytometry (FACS) analysis showed a bright FasL staining in 31% to up to 75% of the total cell population from 14 out of 16 samples; the presence of the FasL protein was confirmed by Western blotting. Dual-color FACS analysis showed that FasL was expressed by T cells in B-NHLs and T-NHLs. A significant percentage of B cells in various B-NHLs also stained positively for FasL. Freshly separated neoplastic B cells from three FasL+ and one FasL- B-NHLs displayed a relative resistance to Fas-mediated apoptosis, when compared to reactive T cells isolated from the same tissue samples. In contrast, the sensitivity to Fas-mediated killing of the T cells isolated from two FasL+ T-NHLs was not uniform. These data show that (1) FasL is expressed in both neoplastic and reactive cells from a significant proportion of lymphoma cases, and (2) that the intratumoral FasL+/Fas+ reactive T cells are more sensitive to Fas-induced apoptosis than the neoplastic FasL+/Fas+ malignant B cells. A putative defect in the Fas/FasL pathway may thus favor the development of malignant B cell populations.

Cysteine protease CPP32, but not Ich1-L, is expressed in germinal center B cells and their neoplastic counterparts.

Ich-1/Nedd2 and CPP32/YAMA are cysteine proteases related to interleukin 1-beta-converting enzyme (ICE), which act as apoptosis effectors. Both molecules are expressed in T- and B-cell lines. The authors investigated their in vivo cellular distribution in normal and neoplastic human lymphoid tissues. Sixty-eight representative non-Hodgkin's lymphomas (NHL) and Hodgkin's disease (HD) samples, normal lymphoid organs, and nonlymphoid tumors were analyzed by immunohistochemistry (IHC). CPP32 expression in benign tissues was restricted to germinal center B cells, plasma cells, and a few interfollicular immunoblasts. All follicular NHLs and most diffuse large cell NHLs were CPP32 positive. Among T-cell NHLs, CPP32 expression was mainly observed in anaplastic large cell NHLs, whereas the other subtypes were less frequently positive. In contrast, lymphoid organs displayed only weak Ich1-L expression, located in sinusal histiocytes and thymic epithelial cells. Lymphomas were Ich1-L negative, except for T-cell-rich B-cell NHLs, and about half of the HD samples, in which Reed-Sternberg cells (RSC) were usually Ich1-L positive/CPP32 negative. Extralymphoid Ich1-L reactivity was found in particular organs like the kidney and various tumors. Western blot analysis confirmed the specificity of immunostaining. Neither CPP32 nor Ich1-L expression were correlated with intratumoral DNA fragmentation, as determined by the TUNEL assay. Altogether, these results indicate that CPP32 is preferentially expressed in germinal centers and thus could be involved in B-cell maturation. The differential expression of CPP32 and Ich1-L suggests that cysteine proteases differ in substrate specificities and carry out functions unrelated to apoptosis.

Fas ligand is not only expressed in immune privileged human organs but is also coexpressed with Fas in various epithelial tissues.

AIMS: To confirm the recent data obtained in mice, showing that the Fas ligand (FasL) is involved in the phenomenon of "immune privilege" (the apparent defect of the immune system in specific anatomical sites) and to extend this finding to humans. METHODS: The expression of FasL was analysed in a panel of histologically normal human tissues by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction and Western blotting. The tissues sampled were brain, breast, bone marrow, oesophagus, kidney, liver, lung, lymph node, ovary, pancreas, pituitary gland, prostate, spleen, stomach (antrum and fundus), striated muscle, testis, thyroid, and uterus. These were obtained from patients with various neoplastic and non-neoplastic disorders; placental tissue was obtained after normal obstetric delivery, and spontaneous or voluntary abortion. RESULTS: Strong FasL expression was detected in testis and placenta. FasL expression was also detectable, although it was seen to a lesser extent, in oesophagus, prostate, lung, and uterus, which also coexpressed variable amounts of Fas mRNA or protein or both. The other organs tested for FasL expression were all negative. CONCLUSIONS: FasL in humans is expressed predominantly in immune "sanctuaries" such as testis and placenta, suggesting that, similar to mice, this expression may contribute to the immune privileged status of these organs, by preventing dangerous inflammatory responses. The coexpression of FasL and Fas in particular epithelia suggests that the physiological cell turnover of some tissues may be regulated by the Fas-FasL apoptotic pathway.

The human PRR2 gene, related to the human poliovirus receptor gene (PVR), is the true homolog of the murine MPH gene.

Until now it was assumed that the murine poliovirus (PV) receptor homolog gene (MPH) had been identified. Alternative splicing of MPH transcripts generates two glycoproteins named MPH alpha and MPH beta which share an identical N-terminal region composed of three immunoglobulin (Ig)-like domains and different C-terminal regions. Using a degenerate PCR strategy, we describe the identification of a second human PVR-related gene (PRR2), which encodes two glycoproteins, PRR2 alpha (short form) and PRR2 delta (long form). They present 69 and 73% identity with MPH alpha and MPH beta, respectively. In contrast, the human PVR protein exhibits 51% identity which is moreover restricted to the three Ig domains of the murine protein. We therefore propose that PRR2, and not PVR, is the true human homolog of MPH. In addition, Northern blot analysis showed that two mRNA isoforms of 3.0 kb (PRR2 alpha) and 4.4 kb (PRR2 delta) are ubiquitously found in various normal human tissues. In situ hybridization allowed us to map PRR2 to the 19q13.2-q13.4 bands of the human genome, in the same chromosomal region as PVR.