Humanoid facial expressions as a tool to study human behaviour.

Besides action vitality forms, facial expressions represent another fundamental social cue which enables to infer the affective state of others. In the present study, we proposed the iCub robot as an interactive and controllable agent to investigate whether and how different facial expressions, associated to different action vitality forms, could modulate the motor behaviour of participants. To this purpose, we carried out a kinematic experiment in which 18 healthy participants observed video-clips of the iCub robot performing a rude or gentle request with a happy or angry facial expression. After this request, they were asked to grasp an object and pass it towards the iCub robot. Results showed that the iCub facial expressions significantly modulated participants motor response. Particularly, the observation of a happy facial expression, associated to a rude action, decreased specific kinematic parameters such as velocity, acceleration and maximum height of movement. In contrast, the observation of an angry facial expression, associated to a gentle action, increased the same kinematic parameters. Moreover, a behavioural study corroborated these findings, showing that the perception of the same action vitality form was modified when associated to a positive or negative facial expression.

Effects of Nordic walking in Alzheimer's disease: A single-blind randomized controlled clinical trial.

Non-pharmacological approaches, including exercise programs, have been proposed to improve cognitive function and behavioral symptoms, such as depression, agitation, or aggression, in the management of patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD). Indeed, physical inactivity is one of the main modifiable risk factors in patients with AD, as well as in the development of cardiovascular diseases and related pathologies. Although Nordic Walking (NW), a particular type of aerobic exercise, is known to benefit the health of aging populations, there is little evidence that patients with AD may benefit from this non-pharmacological treatment. In this context, we performed a pilot study in 30 patients with mild/moderate AD to evaluate whether NW influences different cognitive domains, including executive functions, visual-spatial abilities, and verbal episodic memory. To this aim, 15 patients (Control group, CG) underwent reality orientation therapy, music therapy, motor, proprioceptive and postural rehabilitation, and 15 patients (experimental group, EG) in addition to the activities performed by the CG also had the NW with a frequency of twice a week. Neuropsychological assessments and evaluations of daily activities and quality of life were performed at baseline and after 24 weeks. Twenty-two patients, including 13 in the CG and nine in the EG completed the activity program after 24 weeks. The EG showed a significant improvement in the Frontal Assessment Battery, Rey's auditory Verbal Learning Test Delayed Recall, Raven's Colored Progressive Matrices, and completion time for the Stroop Word-Color Interference test, compared to the CG. NW was able to improve cognitive domains like visual-spatial reasoning abilities, verbal episodic memory, selective attention, and processing speed in AD patients. These results, if confirmed by further studies with a larger number of patients and a longer training period, may prospect NW as a safe and likely useful strategy to slow down cognitive impairment in mild/moderate AD.

Communicative And Affective Components in Processing Auditory Vitality Forms: An fMRI Study.

In previous studies on auditory vitality forms, we found that listening to action verbs pronounced gently or rudely, produced, relative to a neutral robotic voice, activation of the dorso-central insula. One might wonder whether this insular activation depends on the conjunction of action verbs and auditory vitality forms, or whether auditory vitality forms are sufficient per se to activate the insula. To solve this issue, we presented words not related to actions such as concrete nouns (e.g.,"ball"), pronounced gently or rudely. No activation of the dorso-central insula was found. As a further step, we examined whether interjections, i.e., speech stimuli conveying communicative intention (e.g., "hello"), pronounced with different vitality forms, would be able to activate, relative to control, the insula. The results showed that stimuli conveying a communicative intention, pronounced with different auditory vitality forms activate the dorsal-central insula. These data deepen our understanding of the vitality forms processing, showing that insular activation is not specific to action verbs, but can be also activated by speech acts conveying communicative intention such as interjections. These findings also show the intrinsic social nature of vitality forms because activation of the insula was not observed in the absence of a communicative intention.

The influence of vitality forms on action perception and motor response.

During the interaction with others, action, speech, and touches can communicate positive, neutral, or negative attitudes. Offering an apple can be gentle or rude, a caress can be kind or rushed. These subtle aspects of social communication have been named vitality forms by Daniel Stern. Although they characterize all human interactions, to date it is not clear whether vitality forms expressed by an agent may affect the action perception and the motor response of the receiver. To this purpose, we carried out a psychophysics study aiming to investigate how perceiving different vitality forms can influence cognitive and motor tasks performed by participants. In particular, participants were stimulated with requests made through a physical contact or vocally and conveying rude or gentle vitality forms, and then they were asked to estimate the end of a passing action observed in a monitor (action estimation task) or to perform an action in front of it (action execution task) with the intention to pass an object to the other person presented in the video. Results of the action estimation task indicated that the perception of a gentle request increased the duration of a rude action subsequently observed, while the perception of a rude request decreased the duration of the same action performed gently. Additionally, during the action execution task, accordingly with the perceived vitality form, participants modulated their motor response.

The middle cingulate cortex and dorso-central insula: A mirror circuit encoding observation and execution of vitality forms.

Actions with identical goals can be executed in different ways (gentle, rude, vigorous, etc.), which D. N. Stern called vitality forms [D. N. Stern, Forms of Vitality Exploring Dynamic Experience in Psychology, Arts, Psychotherapy, and Development (2010)]. Vitality forms express the agent's attitudes toward others. In a series of fMRI studies, we found that the dorso-central insula (DCI) is the region that is selectively active during both vitality form observation and execution. In one previous experiment, however, the middle cingulate gyrus also exhibited activation. In the present study, in order to assess the role of the cingulate cortex in vitality form processing, we adopted a classical vitality form paradigm, but making the control condition devoid of vitality forms using jerky movements. Participants performed two different tasks: Observation of actions performed gently or rudely and execution of the same actions. The results showed that in addition to the insula, the middle cingulate cortex (MCC) was strongly activated during both action observation and execution. Using a voxel-based analysis, voxels showing a similar trend of the blood-oxygen-level-dependent (BOLD) signal in both action observation and execution were found in the DCI and in the MCC. Finally, using a multifiber tractography analysis, we showed that the active sites in MCC and DCI are reciprocally connected.

The neural bases of tactile vitality forms and their modulation by social context.

People communicate using speech, gestures, and, less frequently, touches. An example of tactile communication is represented by handshake. Customs surrounding handshake vary in different cultures. In Western societies is mostly used when meeting, parting, as a sign of congratulations or at the end of a successful business. Despite its importance in social life, the neural mechanism underlying the affective components conveyed by handshake ("tactile vitality forms") is unknown. Here we combined functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and electromyography (EMG), to investigate the neural affective activations during handshakes. We demonstrated that handshake conveying gentle or aggressive tactile vitality forms produces a stronger activation of the dorso-central insula. The simultaneous presence of emotional facial expressions modulates the activation of this insular sector. Finally, we provide evidence that the cingulate cortex is involved in the processing of facial expressions conveying different vitality forms.

Two Neural Networks for Laughter: A Tractography Study.

Laughter is a complex motor behavior occurring in both emotional and nonemotional contexts. Here, we investigated whether the different functions of laughter are mediated by distinct networks and, if this is the case, which are the white matter tracts sustaining them. We performed a multifiber tractography investigation placing seeds in regions involved in laughter production, as identified by previous intracerebral electrical stimulation studies in humans: the pregenual anterior cingulate (pACC), ventral temporal pole (TPv), frontal operculum (FO), presupplementary motor cortex, and ventral striatum/nucleus accumbens (VS/NAcc). The primary motor cortex (M1) and two subcortical territories were also studied to trace the descending projections. Results provided evidence for the existence of two relatively distinct networks. A first network, including pACC, TPv, and VS/NAcc, is interconnected through the anterior cingulate bundle, the accumbofrontal tract, and the uncinate fasciculus, reaching the brainstem throughout the mamillo-tegmental tract. This network is likely involved in the production of emotional laughter. A second network, anchored to FO and M1, projects to the brainstem motor nuclei through the internal capsule. It is most likely the neural basis of nonemotional and conversational laughter. The two networks interact throughout the pre-SMA that is connected to both pACC and FO.

How attitudes generated by humanoid robots shape human brain activity.

During interpersonal interactions, people perform actions with different forms of vitality, communicating their positive or negative attitude toward others. For example, a handshake can be "soft" or "vigorous", a caress can be 'kind' or 'rushed'. While previous studies have shown that the dorso-central insula is a key area for the processing of human vitality forms, there is no information on the perception of vitality forms generated by a humanoid robot. In this study, two fMRI experiments were conducted in order to investigate whether and how the observation of actions generated by a humanoid robot (iCub) with low and fast velocities (Study 1) or replicating gentle and rude human forms (Study 2) may convey vitality forms eliciting the activation of the dorso-central insula. These studies showed that the observation of robotic actions, generated with low and high velocities, resulted in activation of the parieto-frontal circuit typically involved in the recognition and the execution of human actions but not of the insula (Study 1). Most interestingly, the observation of robotic actions, generated by replicating gentle and rude human vitality forms, produced a BOLD signal increase in the dorso-central insula (Study 2). In conclusion, these data highlight the selective role of dorso-central insula in the processing of vitality forms opening future perspectives on the perception and understanding of actions performed by humanoid robots.

Understanding the attitude of others by hearing action sounds: the role of the insula.

During social interactions, actions and words can be expressed in different ways, for example gently, vigorously or rudely communicating the positive or negative attitude of the agent. These forms of communication are called vitality forms and play a crucial role in social relations. While the neural bases of speech and actions vitality forms have been investigated, there is no information on how we recognize others' mood/attitude by hearing the sound of their actions. In the present fMRI study we investigated the neural basis of vitality forms while participants heard action sounds in two different conditions: sounds resulting from gentle and rude actions, sounds communicating the same actions without vitality forms (control stimuli). Results showed that hearing action sounds conveying rude and gentle vitality forms respect to the control stimuli produced a specific activation of the dorso-central insula. In addition, hearing both vitality forms action sounds and control stimuli produced the activation of the parieto-frontal circuit typically involved in the observation and the execution of arm actions. In conclusion, our data indicate that, the dorso-central insula is a key region involved in the processing of vitality forms regardless of the modality by which they are conveyed.

Insula Connections With the Parieto-Frontal Circuit for Generating Arm Actions in Humans and Macaque Monkeys.

It has been recently found that the human dorso-central insular cortex contributes to the execution and recognition of the affective component of hand actions, most likely through modulation of the activity of the parieto-frontal circuits. While the anatomical connections between the hand representation of the insula and, the parietal and frontal regions controlling reaching/grasping actions is well assessed in the monkey, it is unknown the existence of a homolog circuit in humans. In the present study, we performed a multifiber tractography investigation to trace the tracts possibly connecting the insula to the parieto-frontal circuits by locating seeds in the parietal, premotor, and prefrontal nodes of the reaching/grasping network, in both humans and monkeys. Results showed that, in both species, the insula is connected with the cortical action execution/recognition circuit by similar white matter tracts, running in parallel to the third branch of the superior longitudinal fasciculus and the anterior segment of the arcuate fasciculus.

Mirroring the Social Aspects of Speech and Actions: The Role of the Insula.

Action and speech may take different forms, being expressed, for example, gently or rudely. These aspects of social communication, named vitality forms, have been little studied in neuroscience. In the present functional magnetic resonance imaging study, we investigated the role of insula in processing action and speech vitality forms. In speech runs, participants were asked to listen or imaging themselves to pronounce action verbs gently or rudely. In action runs, they were asked to observe or imaging themselves to perform actions gently or rudely. The results showed that, relative to controls, there was an activation of the dorso-central insula in both tasks of speech and action runs. The insula sector specific for action vitality form was located slightly more dorsally than that of speech with a large overlap of their activations. The psycho-physiological interaction analysis showed that the insular sector involved in action vitality forms processing is connected with the left hemisphere areas controlling arm actions, whereas the sector involved in speech vitality forms processing is linked with right hemisphere areas related to speech prosody. We conclude that the central part of the insula is a key region for vitality forms processing regardless of the modality by which they are conveyed or expressed.

Language for action: Motor resonance during the processing of human and robotic voices.

In this fMRI study we evaluated whether the auditory processing of action verbs pronounced by a human or a robotic voice in the imperative mood differently modulates the activation of the mirror neuron system (MNs). The study produced three results. First, the activation pattern found during listening to action verbs was very similar in both the robot and human conditions. Second, the processing of action verbs compared to abstract verbs determined the activation of the fronto-parietal circuit classically involved during the action goal understanding. Third, and most importantly, listening to action verbs compared to abstract verbs produced activation of the anterior part of the supramarginal gyrus (aSMG) regardless of the condition (human and robot) and in the absence of any object name. The supramarginal gyrus is a region considered to underpin hand-object interaction and associated to the processing of affordances. These results suggest that listening to action verbs may trigger the recruitment of motor representations characterizing affordances and action execution, coherently with the predictive nature of motor simulation that not only allows us to re-enact motor knowledge to understand others' actions but also prepares us for the actions we might need to carry out.

Understanding the internal states of others by listening to action verbs.

The internal state of others can be understood observing their actions or listening to their voice. While the neural bases of action style (vitality forms) have been investigated, there is no information on how we recognize others' internal state by listening to their speech. Here, using fMRI technique, we investigated the neural correlates of auditory vitality forms while participants listened to action verbs in three different conditions: human voice pronouncing the verbs in a rude and gentle way, robot voice pronouncing the same verbs without vitality forms, and a scrambled version of the same verbs pronounced by human voice. In agreement with previous studies on vitality forms encoding, we found specific activation of the central part of insula during listening to human voice conveying specific vitality forms. In addition, when listening both to human and robot voices there was an activation of the posterior part of the left inferior frontal gyrus and of the parieto-premotor circuit typically described to be activated during observation and execution of arm actions. Finally, the superior temporal gyrus was activated bilaterally in all three conditions. We conclude that, the central part of insula is a key region for vitality forms processing allowing the understanding of the vitality forms regardless of the modality by which they are conveyed.

Reliability of sweat-testing by the Macroduct collection method combined with conductivity analysis in comparison with the classic Gibson and Cooke technique.

UNLABELLED: This study was to ascertain the reliability of sweat-testing by the Macroduct collection method combined with conductivity analysis (MCS) compared with the Gibson and Cooke technique (GCT). Sweat stimulation by pilocarpine iontophoresis was identical for both procedures, sweat being collected for 30 min on a filter paper on one forearm and in the coil of the Macroduct collector on the other. Chloride, sodium and potassium concentrations were chemically analysed both on paper-eluted and tube-collected sweat; the latter was also analysed using a conductivity analyser. Chemical analyses were compared with conductivity analyses. This prospective study was carried out on 318 subjects with MCS (118 CFs, 200 controls) and on 305 of them with the GCT (113 CFs, 192 controls). The pilocarpine iontophoresis produced adequate sweat in 96.4% of collections with GCT and in 90.9% with the MCS. Sensitivity and specificity of the Macroduct/conductivity system were comparable to the GCT. No patient detected by the GCT technique was considered negative by conductivity, but one GCT positive was "borderline" with the MCS. Six non-CF subjects identified as negative by the GCT (3.3%) were in the borderline range with the MCS. CONCLUSION: Sweat-testing by the MCS has acceptable sensitivity and specificity when performed by trained CF sweat-testing technicians. Additional studies will be required to find out if these results can be confirmed in small clinics and hospitals where testing is done infrequently. Wherever the MCS is used all positive or borderline results should be confirmed by the GCT at a reference Cystic Fibrosis Center.

Secondary structure prediction for RNA binding domain in RNP proteins identifies beta alpha beta as the main structural motif.

In eukaryotic cells transcript processing is strictly dependent upon binding of specific proteins. Nuclear RNA binding proteins share a common domain, which is involved in RNA binding. In order to characterize RNP-RNA interactions we have performed a secondary structure prediction based both on statistical algorithms and comparative analysis of different proteins. A high conservation for secondary structure propensity between different RNPs was observed.

Common migraine versus daily chronic headache: a study of the relationship between depression and anxiety scores, and dexamethasone suppression test.

To achieve a better understanding of CH and DCH, we used a multidisciplinary approach evaluating both the depression and anxiety scores and the ability of DEX to decrease plasma cortisol levels in patients with these two forms of headache. The Hamilton rating scale for depression, the Zung test for depression and Stai X2 for anxiety showed scores within the control range in both groups of patients without any statistically significant difference between the groups. The DEX test showed significant cortisol suppression in both groups of patients either at 8 a.m. or at 4 p.m. (after DEX administration, 1 mg orally at 11 p.m. the night before). The results obtained indicate that in CM and in DCH, normal depression and anxiety scores exist in the present of the apparent integrity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis.