Occurrence, biological properties and potential effects on human health of ß-casomorphin 7: Current knowledge and concerns.

The genetic variant A1 of bovine ß-casein (ß-Cn) presents a His residue at a position 67 of the mature protein. This feature makes the Ile66-His67 bond more vulnerable to enzymatic cleavage, determining the release of the peptide ß-Cn f(60-66), named ß-casomorphin 7 (BCM7). BCM7 is an opioid-agonist for µ receptors, and it has been hypothesized to be involved in the development of different non-transmissible diseases in humans. In the last decade, studies have provided additional results on the potential health impact of ß-Cn A1 and BCM7. These studies, here reviewed, highlighted a relation between the consumption of ß-Cn A1 (and its derivative BCM7) and the increase of inflammatory response as well as discomfort at the gastrointestinal level. Conversely, the role of BCM7 and the effects of ingestion of ß-Cn A1 on the onset or worsening of other non-transmissible diseases as caused or favored by still need proof of evidence. Overall, the reviewed literature demonstrates that the "ß-Cn A1/BCM7 issue" remains an intriguing but not exhaustively explained topic in human nutrition. On this basis, policies in favor of breeding for ß-Cn variants not releasing BCM7 and consumption of "A1-like" milk appear not yet sound for a healthier and safer nutrition.

Cheese as Functional Food: The Example of Parmigiano Reggiano and Grana Padano.

Italian hard cooked types of cheese, like Parmigiano Reggiano and Grana Padano, are characterised by positive nutritional qualities. In fact, they contain substances that have particular biological activities, and therefore they can be fully considered, according to the definition given by the European Unit, as 'functional' foods. This short review concisely describes these components and the beneficial effects related to their activities. The description of the biologically active components has been organised in the following paragraphs: protein and peptides, fat and lipids, carbohydrates and prebiotics, probiotic bacteria, vitamins, mineral salts, and components of dairy products active in disease prevention. In particular, several known bioactive peptides were found in Parmigiano Reggiano cheese samples: for example, phosphopeptides, which are known for their mineral-binding capacity and vehiculation activity, peptides with immunomodulatory activity, and angiotensin-converting enzyme-inhibitory peptides with anti-hypertensive effects. Among lipids, the role of conjugated linoleic acid and other fatty acids present in these cheese types was taken into consideration. The presence of oligosaccharides with prebiotic properties and probiotic bacteria was also described. Finally, particular emphasis was given to highly available calcium and its impact on bone health.