Three-Dimensional Anthropometric Database of Attractive Caucasian Women: Standards and Comparisons.

The aim of this paper is to develop a database to determine a new biomorphometric standard of attractiveness. Sampling was carried out using noninvasive three-dimensional relief methods to measure the soft tissues of the face. These anthropometric measurements were analyzed to verify the existence of any canons with respect to shape, size, and measurement proportions which proved to be significant with regard to the aesthetics of the face. Finally, the anthropometric parameters obtained were compared with findings described in the international literature.The study sample was made up competitors in the Miss Italy 2010 and 2009 beauty contest. The three-dimensional (3D) scanning of soft tissue surfaces allowed 3D digital models of the faces and the spatial 3D coordinates of 25 anthropometric landmarks to be obtained and used to calculate linear and angular measurements. A paired Student t test for the analysis of the means allowed 3 key questions in the study of biomorphometric parameters of the face to be addressed through comparison with the data available in the literature.The question of statistical evidence for the samples analyzed being members of the populations samples reported in literature was also addressed.The critical analysis of the data helped to identify the anthropometric measurements of the upper, middle, and lower thirds of the face, variations in which have a major influence on the attractiveness of the face. These changes involve facial width, height, and depth. Changes in measurements of length, angles, and proportions found in the sample considered were also analyzed.

Is principal component analysis an effective tool to predict face attractiveness? A contribution based on real 3D faces of highly selected attractive women, scanned with stereophotogrammetry.

In the literature, several papers report studies on mathematical models used to describe facial features and to predict female facial beauty based on 3D human face data. Many authors have proposed the principal component analysis (PCA) method that permits modeling of the entire human face using a limited number of parameters. In some cases, these models have been correlated with beauty classifications, obtaining good attractiveness predictability using wrapped 2D or 3D models. To verify these results, in this paper, the authors conducted a three-dimensional digitization study of 66 very attractive female subjects using a computerized noninvasive tool known as 3D digital photogrammetry. The sample consisted of the 64 contestants of the final phase of the Miss Italy 2010 beauty contest, plus the two highest ranked contestants in the 2009 competition. PCA was conducted on this real faces sample to verify if there is a correlation between ranking and the principal components of the face models. There was no correlation and therefore, this hypothesis is not confirmed for our sample. Considering that the results of the contest are not only solely a function of facial attractiveness, but undoubtedly are significantly impacted by it, the authors based on their experience and real faces conclude that PCA analysis is not a valid prediction tool for attractiveness. The database of the features belonging to the sample analyzed are downloadable online and further contributions are welcome.

Three-dimensional methodology for photogrammetric acquisition of the soft tissues of the face: a new clinical-instrumental protocol.

BACKGROUND: The objective of this study is to define an acquisition protocol that is clear, precise, repeatable, simple, fast and that is useful for analysis of the anthropometric characteristics of the soft tissue of the face. METHODS: The analysis was carried out according to a new clinical-instrumental protocol that comprises four distinct phases: (1) setup of portable equipment in the space in which field analysis will be performed, (2) preparation of the subject and spatial positioning, (3) scanning of the subject with different facial expressions, and (4) treatment and processing of data. The protocol was tested on a sample comprising 66 female subjects (64 Caucasian, 1 Ethiopian, and 1 Brazilian) who were the finalists of an Italian national beauty contest in 2010. To illustrate the potential of the method, we report here the measurements and full analysis that were carried out on the facial model of one of the subjects who was scanned. RESULTS: This new protocol for the acquisition of faces is shown to be fast (phase 1, about 1 h; phase 2, about 1.5 min; phase 3, about 1.5 min; phase 4, about 15 min), simple (phases 1 to 3 requiring a short operator training period; only phase 4 requires expert operators), repeatable (with direct palpation of anatomical landmarks and marking of their positions on the face, the problem of identification of these same landmarks on the digital model is solved), reliable and precise (average precision of measurements, 0.5 to 0.6 mm over the entire surface of the face). CONCLUSIONS: This standardization allows the mapping of the subjects to be carried out following the same conditions in a reliable and fast process for all of the subjects scanned.

Noninvasive computerized scanning method for the correlation between the facial soft and hard tissues for an integrated three-dimensional anthropometry and cephalometry.

OBJECTIVES: The article describes a new methodology to scan and integrate facial soft tissue surface with dental hard tissue models in a three-dimensional (3D) virtual environment, for a novel diagnostic approach.The facial and the dental scans can be acquired using any optical scanning systems: the models are then aligned and integrated to obtain a full virtual navigable representation of the head of the patient. METHODS: In this article, we report in detail and further implemented a method for integrating 3D digital cast models into a 3D facial image, to visualize the anatomic position of the dentition. This system uses several 3D technologies to scan and digitize, integrating them with traditional dentistry records. The acquisitions were mainly performed using photogrammetric scanners, suitable for clinics or hospitals, able to obtain high mesh resolution and optimal surface texture for the photorealistic rendering of the face. To increase the quality and the resolution of the photogrammetric scanning of the dental elements, the authors propose a new technique to enhance the texture of the dental surface. RESULTS: Three examples of the application of the proposed procedure are reported in this article, using first laser scanning and photogrammetry and then only photogrammetry. Using cheek retractors, it is possible to scan directly a great number of dental elements. The final results are good navigable 3D models that integrate facial soft tissue and dental hard tissues. The method is characterized by the complete absence of ionizing radiation, portability and simplicity, fast acquisition, easy alignment of the 3D models, and wide angle of view of the scanner. CONCLUSIONS: This method is completely noninvasive and can be repeated any time the physician needs new clinical records. The 3D virtual model is a precise representation both of the soft and the hard tissue scanned, and it is possible to make any dimensional measure directly in the virtual space, for a full integrated 3D anthropometry and cephalometry. Moreover, the authors propose a method completely based on close-range photogrammetric scanning, able to detect facial and dental surfaces, and reducing the time, the complexity, and the cost of the scanning operations and the numerical elaboration.

Automated landmark extraction for orthodontic measurement of faces using the 3-camera photogrammetry methodology.

OBJECTIVES: To set up a three-dimensional photogrammetric scanning system for precise landmark measurements, without any physical contact, using a low-cost and noninvasive digital photogrammetric solution, for supporting several necessity in clinical orthodontics and/or surgery diagnosis. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Thirty coded targets were directly applied onto the subject's face on the soft tissue landmarks, and then, 3 simultaneous photos were acquired using photogrammetry, at room light conditions. For comparison, a dummy head was digitized both with a photogrammetric technique and with the laser scanner Minolta Vivid 910i (Konica Minolta, Tokyo, Japan). RESULTS: The precise measurement of the landmarks is ranged between 0.017 and 0.029 mm. The system automatically measures spatial position of face landmarks, from which distances and angles can be obtained. The facial measurements were compared with those done using laser scanning and manual caliper. The adopted method gives higher precision than the others (0.022-mm mean value on points and 0.038-mm mean value on linear distances on a dummy head), is simple, and can be used easily as a standard routine. CONCLUSIONS: The study demonstrated the validity of photogrammetry for accurate digitization of human face landmarks. This research points out the potential of this low-cost photogrammetry approach for medical digitization.