Advanced Fibroblast Activation Protein-Ligand Developments: FAP Imaging Agents: A Review of the Structural Requirements.

Fibroblast activation protein-α (FAP) has attracted increasing attention as a selective marker of cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) and more broadly, of activated fibroblasts in tissues undergoing remodeling of their ECM due to chronic inflammation, fibrosis, or wound healing. Since FAP is critical to the initiation of metastatic growth, its expression will serve as a molecular marker to detect tumors at an earlier stage of development compared to currently available methods. The design of high affinity small molecule FAP inhibitor will allow for noninvasive imaging of activated fibroblast in cancer patients. Small molecule inhibitors of FAP are being developed for targeted radiotherapy of tumors.

Synthesis and Evaluation of 11C-Labeled Triazolones as Probes for Imaging Fatty Acid Synthase Expression by Positron Emission Tomography.

Cancer cells require lipids to fulfill energetic, proliferative, and signaling requirements. Even though these cells can take up exogenous fatty acids, the majority exhibit a dependency on de novo fatty acid synthesis. Fatty acid synthase (FASN) is the rate-limiting enzyme in this process. Expression and activity of FASN is elevated in multiple cancers, where it correlates with disease progression and poor prognosis. These observations have sparked interest in developing methods of detecting FASN expression in vivo. One promising approach is the imaging of radiolabeled molecular probes targeting FASN by positron emission tomography (PET). However, although [11C]acetate uptake by prostate cancer cells correlates with FASN expression, no FASN-specific PET probes currently exist. Our aim was to synthesize and evaluate a series of small molecule triazolones based on GSK2194069, an FASN inhibitor with IC50 = 7.7 ± 4.1 nM, for PET imaging of FASN expression. These triazolones were labeled with carbon-11 in good yield and excellent radiochemical purity, and binding to FASN-positive LNCaP cells was significantly higher than FASN-negative PC3 cells. Despite these promising characteristics, however, these molecules exhibited poor in vivo pharmacokinetics and were predominantly retained in lymph nodes and the hepatobiliary system. Future studies will seek to identify structural modifications that improve tumor targeting while maintaining the excretion profile of these first-generation 11C-methyltriazolones.

A Trifunctional Theranostic Ligand Targeting Fibroblast Activation Protein-α (FAPα).

PURPOSE: Fibroblast activation protein-α (FAPα) is uniquely expressed in activated fibroblasts, including cancer-associated fibroblasts that populate tumor stroma and contribute to proliferation and immunosuppression. Radiolabeled FAPα inhibitors enable imaging of multiple human cancers, but time-dependent clearance from tumors currently limits their utility as FAPα-targeted radiotherapeutics. We sought to increase the area under the curve (AUC) by constructing a trifunctional ligand that binds FAPα with high affinity and also binds albumin and theranostic radiometals. PROCEDURES: RPS-309 comprised a FAPα-targeting moiety, an albumin-binding group, and 1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-1,4,7,10-tetraacetic acid (DOTA). Inhibition of recombinant human FAPα (rhFAPα) was determined by colorimetric assay. Affinity for human serum albumin (HSA) was determined by high-performance affinity chromatography. The tissue distribution of [68Ga]Ga-RPS-309 in SW872 tumor xenograft-bearing mice was imaged by microPET/CT and quantified by biodistribution studies performed from 30 min to 3 h post injection (p.i.). The biodistribution of [177Lu]Lu-RPS-309 was determined at 4, 24, and 96 h p.i. RESULTS: RPS-309 inhibits rhFAPα with IC50 = 7.3 ± 1.4 nM. [68Ga]Ga-RPS-309 is taken up specifically by FAPα-expressing cells and binds HSA with Kd = 4.6 ± 0.1 µM. Uptake of the radiolabeled ligand in tumors was evident from 30 min p.i. (> 5 %ID/g) and was significantly reduced by co-injection of RPS-309. Specific skeletal uptake was also observed. Activity in tumors was constant through 4 h p.i., but cleared significantly by 24 h. The AUC in this period was 127 (%ID/g) × h. CONCLUSIONS: RPS-309 is a high-affinity FAPα inhibitor with prolonged plasma residence. Introduction of the albumin-binding group did not compromise FAPα binding. Although initial tumor uptake was high and FAPα-specific, RPS-309 also progressively cleared from tumors. Nevertheless, RPS-309 incorporates multiple sites in which structural diversity can be introduced, and therefore serves as a platform for future structure-activity relationship studies.

Preclinical Evaluation of a High-Affinity Sarcophagine-Containing PSMA Ligand for 64Cu/67Cu-Based Theranostics in Prostate Cancer.

The application of small molecules targeting prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA) has emerged as a highly promising clinical strategy for visualization and treatment of prostate cancer. Ligands that integrate the ability to both quantify the distribution of radioactivity and treat disease through the use of a matched pair of radionuclides have particular value in clinical and regulatory settings. In this study, we describe the development and preclinical evaluation of RPS-085, a ligand that binds PSMA and serum albumin and exploits the 64/67Cu radionuclide pair for prostate cancer theranostics. RPS-085 was synthesized by conjugation of a PSMA-targeting moiety, an Nε-(2-(4-iodophenyl)acetyl)lysine albumin binding group, and a bifunctionalized MeCOSar chelator. The IC50 of the metal-free RPS-085 was determined in a competitive binding assay. The affinity for human serum albumin of the radiolabeled compound was determined by high-performance affinity chromatography. Radiolabeling was performed in NH4OAc buffer at 25 °C. The stability of the radiolabeled compounds was assessed in vitro and in vivo. The biodistribution of [64/67Cu]Cu-RPS-085 was determined following intravenous administration to male BALB/c mice bearing LNCaP tumor xenografts. The radiochemical yields of [64/67Cu]Cu-RPS-085 were nearly quantitative after 20 min. The metal-free complex is a potent inhibitor of PSMA (IC50 = 29 ± 2 nM), and the radiolabeled compound has moderate affinity for human serum albumin (Kd = 9.9 ± 1.7 µM). Accumulation of the tracer in mice was primarily evident in tumor and kidneys. Activity in all other tissues, including blood, was negligible, and the radiolabeled compounds demonstrated high stability in vitro and in vivo. Tumor activity reached a maximum at 4 h post injection (p.i.) and cleared gradually over a period of 96 h. By contrast, activity in the kidney cleared rapidly from 4 to 24 h p.i. As a consequence, by 24 h p.i., the tumor-to-kidney ratio exceeds 2, and the predicted dose to tumors is significantly greater than the dose to kidneys. [64Cu]Cu-RPS-085 combines rapid tissue distribution and clearance with prolonged retention in LNCaP tumor xenografts. The pharmacokinetics should enable radioligand therapy using [67Cu]Cu-RPS-085. By virtue of its rapid kidney clearance, the therapeutic index of [67Cu]Cu-RPS-085 likely compares favorably to its parent structure, [177Lu]Lu-RPS-063, a highly avid PSMA-targeting compound. On this basis, [64/67Cu]Cu-RPS-085 show great promise as PSMA-targeting theranostic ligands for prostate cancer imaging and therapy.

A Single Dose of 225Ac-RPS-074 Induces a Complete Tumor Response in an LNCaP Xenograft Model.

Promising biochemical responses to 225Ac-prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA) 617, even in patients who are refractory to ß-particle radiation, illustrate the potential of targeted α-therapy for the treatment of metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. However, side effects such as xerostomia are severe and irreversible. To fully harness the potential of targeted α-therapy, it is necessary to increase the therapeutic index of the targeted radioligands. One emerging strategy is to increase clearance half-life through enhanced binding to serum albumin. We have evaluated the albumin-binding PSMA-targeting ligand RPS-074 in a LNCaP xenograft model to determine its potential value to the treatment of prostate cancer. Methods:225Ac-RPS-074 was evaluated in male BALB/c mice bearing LNCaP xenograft tumors. A biodistribution study was performed over 21 d to determine the dosimetry in tumors and normal tissue. The dose response was measured in groups of 7 mice using 37, 74, and 148 kBq of 225Ac-RPS-074 and compared with positive and negative control groups. Mice were sacrificed when tumor volume exceeded 1,500 mm3Results:225Ac-RPS-074 was labeled in greater than 98% radiochemical yield and showed high (>10% injected dose/g) and sustained accumulation in LNCaP tumors from 24 h to beyond 14 d. Signal in blood and highly vascularized tissues was evident over the first 24 h after injection and cleared by 7 d. The tumor-to-kidney ratio was 4.3 ± 0.7 at 24 h and 62.2 ± 9.5 at 14 d. A single injection of 148 kBq induced a complete response in 6 of 7 tumors, with no apparent toxic effects. Treatment with 74 kBq induced a partial response in 7 of 7 tumors, but from 42 d, 6 of 7 experienced significant regrowth. The 37-kBq group experienced a survival benefit relative to the negative control but not compared with the positive control group. Conclusion: A single dose of 148 kBq of 225Ac-RPS-074 induced a complete response in 86% of tumors, with tumor-to-normal-tissue ratios that predict an improved therapeutic index. The use of the macropa chelator enabled quantitative radiolabeling and may facilitate the clinical translation of this promising targeted α-therapeutic.

Albumin-Binding PSMA Ligands: Implications for Expanding the Therapeutic Window.

Despite significant gains in the treatment of metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer by radioligands targeting prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA), 30% of patients never respond to therapy. One possible explanation is insufficient dose delivery to the tumor because of suboptimal pharmacokinetics. We have recently described RPS-063, a trifunctional ligand targeting PSMA with high uptake in LNCaP xenograft tumors but also in kidneys. We aimed to use structural modifications to increase the tumor-to-kidney ratio through increased albumin binding and tumor uptake and reduction of kidney activity. Methods: Four structurally related trifunctional PSMA-targeting small molecules were prepared by either varying the albumin-binding group or inserting a polyethylene glycol 8 linker into a common structure. The compounds were ranked by PSMA affinity and albumin affinity and were radiolabeled with 68Ga and 177Lu. Tissue kinetics were determined in male BALB/C nu/nu mice bearing LNCaP xenograft tumors. Results: Each of the compounds binds PSMA with a half-maximal inhibitory concentration of no more than 10 nM. The albumin-binding group had a minimal effect on PSMA affinity but changed albumin affinity by an order of magnitude. However, the addition of a polyethylene glycol 8 spacer weakened affinity for albumin in each case. Increased affinity for albumin corresponded with delayed blood clearance and modified uptake kinetics in the tumor and kidney. Uptake of 177Lu-RPS-072 (34.9 ± 2.4 %ID/g) and 177Lu-RPS-077 (27.4 ± 0.6 %ID/g) increased up to 24 h after injection, and washout by 96 h was not significant. As a result, the area under the curve (AUC) in the tumor was in the following order: 177Lu-RPS-072 > 177Lu-RPS-077 > 177Lu-RPS-063 > 177Lu-RPS-071. Increased linker length corresponded to more rapid clearance from kidneys. Consequently, the ratio of tumor AUC and kidney AUC was 4.7 ± 0.3 for 177Lu-RPS-072. Conclusion: The tumor AUC and tumor-to-kidney ratio of 177Lu-RPS-072 are significantly enhanced compared with any small molecule investigated in a LNCaP xenograft model to date. In comparison to other PSMA-targeting radioligands that have been evaluated in a PC3-PIP model, activity in kidneys is reduced and activity in tumors compares favorably when the different PSMA expression levels in LNCaP and PC3-PIP cells are considered. RPS-072 therefore exhibits an increased therapeutic index, shows the potential to increase the dose delivered to tumors, and is a highly promising candidate for targeted radioligand therapy.

Improved, one-pot synthesis of 6-[18 F]fluorodopamine and quality control testing for use in patients with neuroblastoma.

6-[18 F]Fluorodopamine ([18 F]F-DA) is taken into cells via the norepinephrine transporter (NET). Recent [18 F]F-DA positron emission tomography-computed tomography (PET-CT) imaging of adult neuroendocrine tumors shows a dramatic improvement in sensitivity over the standard-of-care, meta-iodobenzylguanidine (MIBG) single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT)-CT. A new precursor (ALPdopamine™) allows no-carrier-added synthesis resulting in high-molar activity [18 F]F-DA. Automated synthesis of [18 F]F-DA was performed in a single reactor using a two-step procedure: 1) fluorination via thermolysis of a diaryliodonium salt precursor, followed by 2) acid hydrolysis. Phase transfer agents, Kryptofix 222 and two tetraalkylammonium salts, were investigated. Optimized synthesis of [18 F]F-DA was achieved in 56 to 60 minutes (26% end of synthesis [EOS], nondecay corrected). The product passed all Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-required quality control testing for human use. Accumulation of [18 F]F-DA in SK-N-BE(2)-C (high NET expression) cells was significantly higher than in SH-EP (minimal NET expression) cells (P < 0.0001). ALPdopamine provides an effective scaffold for the routine production of [18 F]F-DA for human use. Validation of uptake by neuroblastoma (NB) cell lines supports the use of [18 F]F-DA for imaging NB patients. A pediatric NB imaging trial using [18 F]F-DA PET has been approved (Investigational New Drug application (IND) no. 138638) based on the methods reported here. We expect [18 F]F-DA will be localized in NB tumors and that high-quality functional images will be obtained within minutes after injection.

Dual-Target Binding Ligands with Modulated Pharmacokinetics for Endoradiotherapy of Prostate Cancer.

Prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA)-targeted radiotherapy of prostate cancer (PCa) has emerged recently as a promising approach to the treatment of disseminated disease. A small number of ligands have been evaluated in patients, and although early tumor response is encouraging, relapse rate is high and these compounds localize to the parotid, salivary, and lacrimal glands as well as to the kidney, leading to dose-limiting toxicities and adverse events affecting quality of life. We envision that dual-target binding ligands displaying high affinity for PSMA and appropriate affinity for human serum albumin (HSA) may demonstrate a higher therapeutic index and be suitable for treatment of PCa by targeted α-therapy. Methods: Six novel urea-based ligands with varying affinities for PSMA and HSA were synthesized, labeled with 131I, and evaluated by in vitro binding and uptake assays in LNCaP cells. Four compounds were advanced for further evaluation in a preclinical model of PCa. The compounds were compared with MIP-1095, a PSMA ligand currently in clinical evaluation. Results: The compounds demonstrated affinity for PSMA on the order of 4-40 nM and affinity for HSA in the range of 1-53 µM. Compounds with relatively high affinity for HSA (≤2 µM) showed high and sustained blood-pool activity and reduced uptake in the kidneys. 131I-RPS-027, with a 50% inhibitory concentration (PSMA) of 15 nM and a dissociation constant (HSA) of 11.2 µM, cleared from the blood over the course of 48 h and showed good tumor uptake (10 percentage injected dose per gram) and retention and a greater than 5-fold decrease in kidney uptake relative to MIP-1095. The tumor-to-kidney ratio of 131I-RPS-027 was greater than 3:1 at 24 h after injection, increasing to 7:1 by 72 h. Conclusion: RPS-027 shows dual targeting to PSMA and albumin, resulting in a high tumor uptake, highly favorable tissue distribution, and promising therapeutic profile in a preclinical model of prostate cancer. In comparison to existing ligands proposed for targeted therapy of prostate cancer, RPS-027 has tumor-to-tissue ratios that predict a significant reduction in side effects during therapy. Using iodine/radioiodine as a surrogate for the radiohalogen 211At, we therefore propose dual-target binding ligands such as RPS-027 as next-generation radiopharmaceuticals for targeted α-therapy using 211At.

Thermolysis and radiofluorination of diaryliodonium salts derived from anilines.

Aniline-derived diaryliodonium salts were synthesized and functionalized in good to excellent yields by judicious utilization of electron-withdrawing protecting groups. This simple approach opens another route to radiolabeling amino arenes in relatively complex molecules, such as flutemetamol.

Efficient automated syntheses of high specific activity 6-[18F]fluorodopamine using a diaryliodonium salt precursor.

6-[(18)F]Fluorodopamine (6-[(18) F]F-DA) is a positron emission tomography radiopharmaceutical used to image sympathetic cardiac innervation and neuroendocrine tumors. Imaging with 6-[(18)F]F-DA is constrained, in part, by the bioactivity and neurotoxicity of 6-[(19)F]fluorodopamine. Furthermore, routine access to this radiotracer is limited by the inherent difficulty of incorporation of [(18)F]fluoride into electron-rich aromatic substrates. We describe the simple and direct preparation of high specific activity (SA) 6-[(18)F]F-DA from no-carrier-added (n.c.a.) [(18)F]fluoride. Incorporation of n.c.a. [(18)F]fluoride into a diaryliodonium salt precursor was achieved in 50-75% radiochemical yields (decay corrected to end of bombardment). Synthesis of 6-[(18)F]F-DA on the IBA Synthera® and GE TRACERlab FX-FN automated platforms gave 6-[(18)F]F-DA in >99% chemical and radiochemical purities after HPLC purification. The final non-corrected yields of 6-[(18)F]F-DA were 25 ± 4% (n = 4, 65 min) and 31 ± 6% (n = 3, 75 min) using the Synthera and TRACERlab modules, respectively. Efficient access to high SA 6-[(18)F]F-DA from a diaryliodonium salt precursor and n.c.a. [(18)F]fluoride is provided by a relatively subtle change in reaction conditions - replacement of a polar aprotic solvent (acetonitrile) with a relatively nonpolar solvent (toluene) during the critical radiofluorination reaction. Implementation of this process on common radiochemistry platforms should make 6-[(18)F]F-DA readily available to the wider imaging community.

A practical, automated synthesis of meta-[(18)F]fluorobenzylguanidine for clinical use.

Many neuroendocrine tumors, such as neuroblastoma (NB), arise from neural crest cells of the sympathetic nervous system. This nerve-like phenotype has been exploited for functional imaging using radioactive probes originally designed for neuronal and adrenal medullary applications. NB imaging with meta-[(123)I]iodobenzylguanidine ([(123)I]MIBG) is limited by the emissions of (123)I, which lead to poor image resolution and challenges in quantification of its accumulation in tumors. meta-[(18)F]Fluorobenzylguanidine ([(18)F]MFBG) is a promising alternative to [(123)I]MIBG that could change the standard of practice for imaging neuroendocrine tumors, but interest in this PET radiotracer has suffered due to its complex and inefficient radiosynthesis. Here we report a two-step, automated method for the routine production of [(18)F]MFBG by thermolysis of a diaryliodonium fluoride and subsequent acid deprotection. The synthesis was adapted for use on a commercially available synthesizer for routine production. Full characterization of [(18)F]MFBG produced by this route demonstrated the tracer's suitability for human use. [(18)F]MFBG was prepared in almost 3-fold higher yield than previously reported (31% corrected to end of bombardment, n = 9) in a synthesis time of 56 min with >99.9% radiochemical purity. Other than pH adjustment and dilution of the final product, no reformulation was necessary after purification. This method permits the automated production of multidose batches of clinical grade [(18)F]MFBG. Moreover, if ongoing clinical imaging trials of [(18)F]MFBG are successful, this methodology is suitable for rapid commercialization and can be easily adapted for use on most commercial automated radiosynthesis equipment.

Reactivities of vinyl azides and their recent applications in nitrogen heterocycle synthesis.

Nitrogen heterocycles are abundant in natural products and pharmaceuticals. An emerging interest among synthetic chemists is to apply vinyl azides as a pivotal three-atom synthon for the construction of structurally complex and diverse N-heterocyclic skeletons. The unique features of the azide group connected to an alkene moiety permit vinyl azides to function as electrophiles, nucleophiles, or radical acceptors; their access to diverse reaction pathways provides great opportunities to generate highly reactive intermediates with often unusual or unconventional reactivities. This tutorial review will systematically illustrate the reactivities of vinyl azides and describe recent breakthroughs in the development of new transformations that create N-heterocycles.

An alternative to the Sandmeyer approach to aryl iodides.

Iodoarenes are important synthons for a wide range of organic transformations. Here we report a general strategy to prepare singly iodinated electron-rich aromatic compounds through the intermediacy of diaryliodonium salts. This process, which incorporates a phase separation that greatly simplifies product purification, is an attractive replacement for the Sandmeyer approach to iodoarenes that are otherwise difficult to access.

Production and Transport of Gaseous 18F-Synthons: 18F-Acyl Fluorides.

Fluorine-18 (18F, T 1/2=109.7 min) is a positron-emitting isotope that has found extensive application as a radiolabel for positron emission tomography (PET). Although gaseous 11C-CO2 and 11C-CH4 are practically transported from cyclotron to radiochemistry processes, 18F-fluoride is routinely transported in aqueous solution because it is commonly produced by proton irradiation of 18O-enriched water. In most cases, subsequent dry-down steps are necessary to prepare reactive 18F-fluoride for radiofluorination. In this work, a simple module was designed to generate gaseous 18F-acyl fluorides from aqueous 18F-fluoride solution by solid phase 18F-radiofluorination of acyl anhydride. The gaseous 18F-acyl fluorides were purified through a column containing Porapak Q/Na2SO4, resulting in high yields (>86%), purities (>99%) and specific activities (>1200 GBq/µmol). Prototypic 18F-acetyl fluoride (18F-AcF) was readily transported through 15 m of 0.8 mm ID polypropylene tubing with low (0.64 ± 0.12 %) adsorption to the tubing. Following dissolution of 18F-AcF in solvent containing base, highly reactive 18F-flouride was generated immediately and used directly for 18F-labeling reactions. These data indicate that 18F-acyl fluorides represent a new paradigm for preparation and transport of anhydrous, reactive 18F-fluoride for radiofluorinations.

A Mild and General One-Pot Synthesis of Densely Functionalized Diaryliodonium Salts.

Diaryliodonium salts are powerful and widely used arylating agents in organic chemistry. Here we report a scalable, synthesis of densely functionalized diaryliodonium salts from aryl iodides under mild conditions. This two-step, one-pot process has remarkable functional group tolerance, is compatible with commonly employed acid-labile protective group strategies, avoids heavy metal and transition metal reagents, and provides a direct route to stable precursors to PET imaging agents.

In vivo biodistribution of no-carrier-added 6-18F-fluoro-3,4-dihydroxy-L-phenylalanine (18F-DOPA), produced by a new nucleophilic substitution approach, compared with carrier-added 18F-DOPA, prepared by conventional electrophilic substitution.

UNLABELLED: A novel synthetic approach to 6-(18)F-fluoro-3,4-dihydroxy-L-phenylalanine ((18)F-DOPA), involving the nucleophilic substitution of a diaryliodonium salt precursor with non-carrier-added (18)F-fluoride, yielded a product with a specific activity that was 3 orders of magnitude higher than the product of the conventional synthesis method, involving an electrophilic substitution of a trialkylstannane precursor with (18)F2. We performed a direct comparison of high- and low-specific-activity (18)F-DOPA in a neuroendocrine tumor model to determine whether this difference in specific activity has implications for the biologic behavior and imaging properties of (18)F-DOPA. METHODS: (18)F-DOPA was produced via the novel synthesis method, yielding (18)F-DOPA-H with a high specific activity (35,050 ± 4,000 GBq/mmol). This product was compared in several experiments with conventional (18)F-DOPA-L with a low specific activity (11 ± 2 GBq/mmol). In vitro accumulation experiments with the human pancreatic neuroendocrine tumor cell line BON-1 were performed at both 0 °C and 37 °C and at 37 °C in the presence of pharmacologic inhibitors of proteins involved in the uptake mechanism of (18)F-DOPA. Small-animal PET experiments were performed in athymic nude mice bearing a BON-1 tumor xenograft. RESULTS: At 37 °C, the uptake of both (18)F-DOPA-H and (18)F-DOPA-L did not differ significantly during a 60-min accumulation experiment in BON-1 cells. At 0 °C, the uptake of (18)F-DOPA-L was significantly decreased, whereas the lower temperature did not alter the uptake of (18)F-DOPA-H. The pharmacologic inhibitors carbidopa and tetrabenazine also revealed differential effects between the 2 types of (18)F-DOPA in the 60-min accumulation experiment. The small-animal PET experiments did not show any significant differences in distribution and metabolism of (18)F-DOPA-H and (18)F-DOPA-L in carbidopa-pretreated mice. CONCLUSION: The advantages of the novel synthesis of (18)F-DOPA, which relies on nucleophilic fluorination of a diaryliodonium salt precursor, lie in the simplicity of the synthesis method, compared with the conventional, electrophilic approach and in the reduced mass of administered, pharmacologically active (19)F-DOPA. (18)F-DOPA-H demonstrated comparable imaging properties in an in vivo model for neuroendocrine tumors, despite the fact that the injected mass of material was 3 orders of magnitude less than (18)F-DOPA-L.

Ligand Fluorination to Optimize Preferential Oxidation (PROX) of Carbon Monoxide by Water-Soluble Rhodium Porphyrins.

Catalytic, low temperature preferential oxidation (PROX) of carbon monoxide by aqueous [5,10,15,20-tetrakis(4-sulfonatophenyl)-2,3,7,8,12,13,17,18-octafluoroporphyrinato]rhodium(III) tetrasodium salt, (1[Rh(III)]) and [5,10,15,20-tetrakis(3-sulfonato-2,6-difluorophenyl)-2,3,7,8,12,13,17,18-octafluoroporphyrinato]rhodium(III) tetrasodium salt, (2[Rh(III)]) is reported. The PROX reaction occurs at ambient temperature in buffered (4 ≤ pH ≤ 13) aqueous solutions. Fluorination on the porphyrin periphery is shown to increase the CO PROX reaction rate, shift the metal centered redox potentials, and acidify ligated water molecules. Most importantly, ß-fluorination increases the acidity of the rhodium hydride complex (pK(a) = 2.2 ± 0.2 for 2[Rh-D]); the dramatically increased acidity of the Rh(III) hydride complex precludes proton reduction and hydrogen activation near neutral pH, thereby permitting oxidation of CO to be unaffected by the presence of H(2). This new fluorinated water-soluble rhodium porphyrin-based homogenous catalyst system permits preferential oxidation of carbon monoxide in hydrogen gas streams at 308 °K using dioxygen or a sacrificial electron acceptor (indigo carmine) as the terminal oxidant.

Unprecedented directing group ability of cyclophanes in arene fluorinations with diaryliodonium salts.

For the first time it is shown that exceptionally electron-rich arene rings can be fluorinated exclusively during the reductive elimination reactions of diaryliodonium fluorides. The 5-methoxy[2.2]paracyclophan-4-yl directing group simultaneously reduces unproductive aryne chemistry and eliminates ligand exchange reactions by a combination of steric and electronic effects. Use of the cyclophane directing group permits an unprecedented degree of control in fluorination reactions of diaryliodonium salts.

Fluoride-Promoted Ligand Exchange in Diaryliodonium Salts.

Diaryliodonium salts are shown to undergo rapid, fluoride-promoted aryl exchange reactions at room temperature in acetonitrile. Aryl exchange is shown to be exquisitely sensitive to the concentration of fluoride ion in solution; fast exchange is observed as the fluoride concentration approaches a stoichiometric amount at 50 mM substrate concentration. The reaction is slowed, but not halted if benzene is the solvent, indicating that free fluoride ion or a four-coordinate anionic I(III) species may be responsible for the exchange. The fluoride-promoted aryl exchange reaction is general and allows direct measurement of the relative stabilities of diaryliodonium salts featuring different aryl substituents. The aryl exchange reaction may be of practical use for the preparation of hitherto inaccessible diaryliodonium salts, thus it also has implications for labeling radiotracers for molecular imaging with (18)F-fluoride (t(1/2) = 109.7 min).

Improved arene fluorination methodology for I(III) salts.

The use of low polarity aromatic solvents (benzene or toluene) and/or the removal of inorganic salts results in dramatically improved yields of fluorinated arenes from diaryliodonium salts. This methodology is shown to "scale down" to the conditions used typically for radiotracer synthesis.