Genome-wide association studies and polygenic risk score phenome-wide association studies across complex phenotypes in the human phenotype project.

BACKGROUND: Genome-wide association studies (GWASs) associate phenotypes and genetic variants across a study cohort. GWASs require large-scale cohorts with both phenotype and genetic sequencing data, limiting studied phenotypes. The Human Phenotype Project is a longitudinal study that has measured a wide range of clinical and biomolecular features from a self-assignment cohort over 5 years. The phenotypes collected are quantitative traits, providing higher-resolution insights into the genetics of complex phenotypes. METHODS: We present the results of GWASs and polygenic risk score phenome-wide association studies with 729 clinical phenotypes and 4,043 molecular features from the Human Phenotype Project. This includes clinical traits that have not been previously associated with genetics, including measures from continuous sleep monitoring, continuous glucose monitoring, liver ultrasound, hormonal status, and fundus imaging. FINDINGS: In GWAS of 8,706 individuals, we found significant associations between 169 clinical traits and 1,184 single-nucleotide polymorphisms. We found genes associated with both glycemic control and mental disorders, and we quantify the strength of genetic signals in serum metabolites. In polygenic risk score phenome-wide association studies for clinical traits, we found 16,047 significant associations. CONCLUSIONS: The entire set of findings, which we disseminate publicly, provides newfound resolution into the genetic architecture of complex human phenotypes. FUNDING: E.S. is supported by the Minerva foundation with funding from the Federal German Ministry for Education and Research and by the European Research Council and the Israel Science Foundation.

Prokaryotic rRNA-mRNA interactions are involved in all translation steps and shape bacterial transcripts.

The well-established Shine-Dalgarno model suggests that translation initiation in bacteria is regulated via base-pairing between ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and mRNA. We used novel computational analyses and modelling of 823 bacterial genomes coupled with experiments to demonstrate that rRNA-mRNA interactions are diverse and regulate all translation steps from pre-initiation to termination. Previous research has reported the significant influence of rRNA-mRNA interactions, mainly in the initiation phase of translation. The results reported in this paper suggest that, in addition to the rRNA-mRNA interactions near the start codon that trigger initiation in bacteria, rRNA-mRNA interactions affect all sub-stages of the translation process (pre-initiation, initiation, elongation, termination). As these interactions dictate translation efficiency, they serve as an evolutionary driving force for shaping transcripts in bacteria while considering trade-offs between the effects of different interactions across different transcript regions on translation efficacy and efficiency. We observed selection for strong interactions in regions where such interactions are likely to enhance initiation, regulate early elongation, and ensure translation termination fidelity. We discovered selection against strong interactions and for intermediate interactions in coding regions and presented evidence that these patterns maximize elongation efficiency while also enhancing initiation. These finding are relevant to all biomedical disciplines due to the centrality of the translation process and the effect of rRNA-mRNA interactions on transcript evolution.

New computational model for miRNA-mediated repression reveals novel regulatory roles of miRNA bindings inside the coding region.

MOTIVATION: MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are short (∼24nt), non-coding RNAs, which downregulate gene expression in many species and physiological processes. Many details regarding the mechanism which governs miRNA-mediated repression continue to elude researchers. RESULTS: We elucidate the interplay between the coding sequence and the 3'UTR, by using elastic net regularization and incorporating translation-related features to predict miRNA-mediated repression. We find that miRNA binding sites at the end of the coding sequence contribute to repression, and that weak binding sites are linked to effective de-repression, possibly as a result of competing with stronger binding sites. Furthermore, we propose a recycling model for miRNAs dissociated from the open reading frame (ORF) by traversing ribosomes, explaining the observed link between increased ribosome density/traversal speed and increased repression. We uncover a novel layer of interaction between the coding sequence and the 3'UTR (untranslated region) and suggest the ORF has a larger role than previously thought in the mechanism of miRNA-mediated repression. AVAILABILITY AND IMPLEMENTATION: The code is freely available at https://github.com/aescrdni/miRNA_model. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.

ChimeraUGEM: unsupervised gene expression modeling in any given organism.

MOTIVATION: Regulation of the amount of protein that is synthesized from genes has proved to be a serious challenge in terms of analysis and prediction, and in terms of engineering and optimization, due to the large diversity in expression machinery across species. RESULTS: To address this challenge, we developed a methodology and a software tool (ChimeraUGEM) for predicting gene expression as well as adapting the coding sequence of a target gene to any host organism. We demonstrate these methods by predicting protein levels in seven organisms, in seven human tissues, and by increasing in vivo the expression of a synthetic gene up to 26-fold in the single-cell green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. The underlying model is designed to capture sequence patterns and regulatory signals with minimal prior knowledge on the host organism and can be applied to a multitude of species and applications. AVAILABILITY AND IMPLEMENTATION: Source code (MATLAB, C) and binaries are freely available for download for non-commercial use at http://www.cs.tau.ac.il/~tamirtul/ChimeraUGEM/, and supported on macOS, Linux and Windows. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.

The COP9 signalosome influences the epigenetic landscape of Arabidopsis thaliana.

MOTIVATION: The COP9 signalosome is a highly conserved multi-protein complex consisting of eight subunits, which influences key developmental pathways through its regulation of protein stability and transcription. In Arabidopsis thaliana, mutations in the COP9 signalosome exhibit a number of diverse pleiotropic phenotypes. Total or partial loss of COP9 signalosome function in Arabidopsis leads to misregulation of a number of genes involved in DNA methylation, suggesting that part of the pleiotropic phenotype is due to global effects on DNA methylation. RESULTS: We determined and analyzed the methylomes and transcriptomes of both partial- and total-loss-of-function Arabidopsis mutants of the COP9 signalosome. Our results support the hypothesis that the COP9 signalosome has a global genome-wide effect on methylation and that this effect is at least partially encoded in the DNA. Our analyses suggest that COP9 signalosome-dependent methylation is related to gene expression regulation in various ways. Differentially methylated regions tend to be closer in the 3D conformation of the genome to differentially expressed genes. These results suggest that the COP9 signalosome has a more comprehensive effect on gene expression than thought before, and this is partially related to regulation of methylation. The high level of COP9 signalosome conservation among eukaryotes may also suggest that COP9 signalosome regulates methylation not only in plants but also in other eukaryotes, including humans. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.

Modeling three-dimensional genomic organization in evolution and pathogenesis.

The regulation of gene expression is mediated via the complex three-dimensional (3D) conformation of the genetic material and its interactions with various intracellular factors. Various experimental and computational approaches have been developed in recent years for understating the relation between the 3D conformation of the genome and the phenotypes of cells in normal condition and diseases. In this review, we will discuss novel approaches for analyzing and modeling the 3D genomic conformation, focusing on deciphering disease-causing mutations that affect gene expression. We conclude that as this is a very challenging mission, an important direction should involve the comparative analysis of various 3D models from various organisms or cells.

The extent of ribosome queuing in budding yeast.

Ribosome queuing is a fundamental phenomenon suggested to be related to topics such as genome evolution, synthetic biology, gene expression regulation, intracellular biophysics, and more. However, this phenomenon hasn't been quantified yet at a genomic level. Nevertheless, methodologies for studying translation (e.g. ribosome footprints) are usually calibrated to capture only single ribosome protected footprints (mRPFs) and thus limited in their ability to detect ribosome queuing. On the other hand, most of the models in the field assume and analyze a certain level of queuing. Here we present an experimental-computational approach for studying ribosome queuing based on sequencing of RNA footprints extracted from pairs of ribosomes (dRPFs) using a modified ribosome profiling protocol. We combine our approach with traditional ribosome profiling to generate a detailed profile of ribosome traffic. The data are analyzed using computational models of translation dynamics. The approach was implemented on the Saccharomyces cerevisiae transcriptome. Our data shows that ribosome queuing is more frequent than previously thought: the measured ratio of ribosomes within dRPFs to mRPFs is 0.2-0.35, suggesting that at least one to five translating ribosomes is in a traffic jam; these queued ribosomes cannot be captured by traditional methods. We found that specific regions are enriched with queued ribosomes, such as the 5'-end of ORFs, and regions upstream to mRPF peaks, among others. While queuing is related to higher density of ribosomes on the transcript (characteristic of highly translated genes), we report cases where traffic jams are relatively more severe in lowly expressed genes and possibly even selected for. In addition, our analysis demonstrates that higher adaptation of the coding region to the intracellular tRNA levels is associated with lower queuing levels. Our analysis also suggests that the Saccharomyces cerevisiae transcriptome undergoes selection for eliminating traffic jams. Thus, our proposed approach is an essential tool for high resolution analysis of ribosome traffic during mRNA translation and understanding its evolution.

Tracking the evolution of 3D gene organization demonstrates its connection to phenotypic divergence.

It has recently been shown that the organization of genes in eukaryotic genomes, and specifically in 3D, is strongly related to gene expression and function and partially conserved between organisms. However, previous studies of 3D genomic organization analyzed each organism independently from others. Here, we propose an approach for unified inter-organismal analysis of gene organization based on a network representation of Hi-C data. We define and detect four classes of spatially co-evolving orthologous modules (SCOMs), i.e. gene families that co-evolve in their 3D organization, based on patterns of divergence and conservation of distances. We demonstrate our methodology on Hi-C data from Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Schizosaccharomyces pombe, and identify, among others, modules relating to RNA splicing machinery and chromatin silencing by small RNA which are central to S. pombe's lifestyle. Our results emphasize the importance of 3D genomic organization in eukaryotes and suggest that the evolutionary mechanisms that shape gene organization affect the organism fitness and phenotypes. The proposed algorithms can be utilized in future studies of genome evolution and comparative analysis of spatial genomic organization in different tissues, conditions and single cells.

Evidence of translation efficiency adaptation of the coding regions of the bacteriophage lambda.

Deciphering the way gene expression regulatory aspects are encoded in viral genomes is a challenging mission with ramifications related to all biomedical disciplines. Here, we aimed to understand how the evolution shapes the bacteriophage lambda genes by performing a high resolution analysis of ribosomal profiling data and gene expression related synonymous/silent information encoded in bacteriophage coding regions.We demonstrated evidence of selection for distinct compositions of synonymous codons in early and late viral genes related to the adaptation of translation efficiency to different bacteriophage developmental stages. Specifically, we showed that evolution of viral coding regions is driven, among others, by selection for codons with higher decoding rates; during the initial/progressive stages of infection the decoding rates in early/late genes were found to be superior to those in late/early genes, respectively. Moreover, we argued that selection for translation efficiency could be partially explained by adaptation to Escherichia coli tRNA pool and the fact that it can change during the bacteriophage life cycle.An analysis of additional aspects related to the expression of viral genes, such as mRNA folding and more complex/longer regulatory signals in the coding regions, is also reported. The reported conclusions are likely to be relevant also to additional viruses.

Estimation of ribosome profiling performance and reproducibility at various levels of resolution.

BACKGROUND: Ribosome profiling (or Ribo-seq) is currently the most popular methodology for studying translation; it has been employed in recent years to decipher various fundamental gene expression regulation aspects. The main promise of the approach is its ability to detect ribosome densities over an entire transcriptome in high resolution of single codons. Indeed, dozens of ribo-seq studies have included results related to local ribosome densities in different parts of the transcript; nevertheless, the performance of Ribo-seq has yet to be quantitatively evaluated and reported in a large-scale multi-organismal and multi-protocol study of currently available datasets. RESULTS: Here we provide the first objective evaluation of Ribo-seq at the resolution of a single nucleotide(s) using clear, interpretable measures, based on the analysis of 15 experiments, 6 organisms, and a total of 612, 961 transcripts. Our major conclusion is that the ability to infer signals of ribosomal densities at nucleotide scale is considerably lower than previously thought, as signals at this level are not reproduced well in experimental replicates. In addition, we provide various quantitative measures that connect the expected error rate with Ribo-seq analysis resolution. CONCLUSIONS: The analysis of Ribo-seq data at the resolution of codons and nucleotides provides a challenging task, calls for task-specific statistical methods and further protocol improvements. We believe that our results are important for every researcher studying translation and specifically for researchers analyzing data generated by the Ribo-seq approach. REVIEWERS: This article was reviewed by Dmitrij Frishman, Eugene Koonin and Frank Eisenhaber.

Rationally designed, heterologous S. cerevisiae transcripts expose novel expression determinants.

Deducing generic causal relations between RNA transcript features and protein expression profiles from endogenous gene expression data remains a major unsolved problem in biology. The analysis of gene expression from heterologous genes contributes significantly to solving this problem, but has been heavily biased toward the study of the effect of 5' transcript regions and to prokaryotes. Here, we employ a synthetic biology driven approach that systematically differentiates the effect of different regions of the transcript on gene expression up to 240 nucleotides into the ORF. This enabled us to discover new causal effects between features in previously unexplored regions of transcripts, and gene expression in natural regimes. We rationally designed, constructed, and analyzed 383 gene variants of the viral HRSVgp04 gene ORF, with multiple synonymous mutations at key positions along the transcript in the eukaryote S. cerevisiae. Our results show that a few silent mutations at the 5'UTR can have a dramatic effect of up to 15 fold change on protein levels, and that even synonymous mutations in positions more than 120 nucleotides downstream from the ORF 5'end can modulate protein levels up to 160%-300%. We demonstrate that the correlation between protein levels and folding energy increases with the significance of the level of selection of the latter in endogenous genes, reinforcing the notion that selection for folding strength in different parts of the ORF is related to translation regulation. Our measured protein abundance correlates notably(correlation up to r = 0.62 (p=0.0013)) with mean relative codon decoding times, based on ribosomal densities (Ribo-Seq) in endogenous genes, supporting the conjecture that translation elongation and adaptation to the tRNA pool can modify protein levels in a causal/direct manner. This report provides an improved understanding of transcript evolution, design principles of gene expression regulation, and suggests simple rules for engineering synthetic gene expression in eukaryotes.

Improving 3D Genome Reconstructions Using Orthologous and Functional Constraints.

The study of the 3D architecture of chromosomes has been advancing rapidly in recent years. While a number of methods for 3D reconstruction of genomic models based on Hi-C data were proposed, most of the analyses in the field have been performed on different 3D representation forms (such as graphs). Here, we reproduce most of the previous results on the 3D genomic organization of the eukaryote Saccharomyces cerevisiae using analysis of 3D reconstructions. We show that many of these results can be reproduced in sparse reconstructions, generated from a small fraction of the experimental data (5% of the data), and study the properties of such models. Finally, we propose for the first time a novel approach for improving the accuracy of 3D reconstructions by introducing additional predicted physical interactions to the model, based on orthologous interactions in an evolutionary-related organism and based on predicted functional interactions between genes. We demonstrate that this approach indeed leads to the reconstruction of improved models.

Three-dimensional eukaryotic genomic organization is strongly correlated with codon usage expression and function.

It has been shown that the distribution of genes in eukaryotic genomes is not random; however, formerly reported relations between gene function and genomic organization were relatively weak. Previous studies have demonstrated that codon usage bias is related to all stages of gene expression and to protein function. Here we apply a novel tool for assessing functional relatedness, codon usage frequency similarity (CUFS), which measures similarity between genes in terms of codon and amino acid usage. By analyzing chromosome conformation capture data, describing the three-dimensional (3D) conformation of the DNA, we show that the functional similarity between genes captured by CUFS is directly and very strongly correlated with their 3D distance in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Schizosaccharomyces pombe, Arabidopsis thaliana, mouse and human. This emphasizes the importance of three-dimensional genomic localization in eukaryotes and indicates that codon usage is tightly linked to genome architecture.