Mitochondrial metabolism and the continuing search for ultimate regulators of developmental rate.

The rate of embryonic development is a species-specific trait that depends on the properties of the intracellular environment, namely, the rate at which gene products flow through the central dogma of molecular biology. Although any given step in the production and degradation of gene products could theoretically be co-opted by evolution to modulate developmental speed, species are observed to accelerate or slow down all steps simultaneously. This suggests the rate of these molecular processes is jointly regulated by an upstream, ultimate factor. Mitochondrial metabolism was recently proposed to act as an ultimate regulator by controlling the pace of protein synthesis upstream of developmental tempo. Alternative candidates for ultimate regulators include species-specific gene expression levels of factors involved in the central dogma, as well as species-specific cell size. Overall, much work remains to be done before we can confidently identify the ultimate causes of species-specific developmental rates.

Modeling Human Paraxial Mesoderm Development with Pluripotent Stem Cells.

Paraxial mesoderm in the early embryo is segmented into epithelial blocks called somites that establish the metameric organization of the vertebrate body plan. Somites are sequentially formed from head to tail in a rhythmic manner controlled by an oscillating gene regulatory network known as the segmentation clock. We know very little about this important process during human development due to limited access to human embryos and ethical concerns. To bypass these difficulties, model systems derived from human pluripotent stem cells have been established. Here, we detail three protocols modeling different aspects of human paraxial mesoderm development in vitro: a 2D cell monolayer system recapitulating dynamics of the human segmentation clock, a 3D organoid system called "somitoid" supporting the simultaneous formation of somite-like structures, and another organoid system called "segmentoid" reconstituting in vivo-like hallmarks of somitogenesis. Together, these complementary model systems provide an excellent platform to decode somitogenesis and advance human developmental biology.

The Clockwork Embryo: Mechanisms Regulating Developmental Rate.

Organismal development requires the reproducible unfolding of an ordered sequence of discrete steps (cell fate determination, migration, tissue folding, etc.) in both time and space. Here, we review the mechanisms that grant temporal specificity to developmental steps, including molecular clocks and timers. Individual timing mechanisms must be coordinated with each other to maintain the overall developmental sequence. However, phenotypic novelties can also arise through the modification of temporal patterns over the course of evolution. Two main types of variation in temporal patterning characterize interspecies differences in developmental time: allochrony, where the overall developmental sequence is either accelerated or slowed down while maintaining the relative duration of individual steps, and heterochrony, where the duration of specific developmental steps is altered relative to the rest. New advances in in vitro modeling of mammalian development using stem cells have recently enabled the revival of mechanistic studies of allochrony and heterochrony. In both cases, differences in the rate of basic cellular functions such as splicing, translation, protein degradation, and metabolism seem to underlie differences in developmental time. In the coming years, these studies should identify the genetic differences that drive divergence in developmental time between species.

Metabolic regulation of species-specific developmental rates.

Animals display substantial inter-species variation in the rate of embryonic development despite a broad conservation of the overall sequence of developmental events. Differences in biochemical reaction rates, including the rates of protein production and degradation, are thought to be responsible for species-specific rates of development1-3. However, the cause of differential biochemical reaction rates between species remains unknown. Here, using pluripotent stem cells, we have established an in vitro system that recapitulates the twofold difference in developmental rate between mouse and human embryos. This system provides a quantitative measure of developmental speed as revealed by the period of the segmentation clock, a molecular oscillator associated with the rhythmic production of vertebral precursors. Using this system, we show that mass-specific metabolic rates scale with the developmental rate and are therefore higher in mouse cells than in human cells. Reducing these metabolic rates by inhibiting the electron transport chain slowed down the segmentation clock by impairing the cellular NAD+/NADH redox balance and, further downstream, lowering the global rate of protein synthesis. Conversely, increasing the NAD+/NADH ratio in human cells by overexpression of the Lactobacillus brevis NADH oxidase LbNOX increased the translation rate and accelerated the segmentation clock. These findings represent a starting point for the manipulation of developmental rate, with multiple translational applications including accelerating the differentiation of human pluripotent stem cells for disease modelling and cell-based therapies.

Reconstruction and deconstruction of human somitogenesis in vitro.

The vertebrate body displays a segmental organization that is most conspicuous in the periodic organization of the vertebral column and peripheral nerves. This metameric organization is first implemented when somites, which contain the precursors of skeletal muscles and vertebrae, are rhythmically generated from the presomitic mesoderm. Somites then become subdivided into anterior and posterior compartments that are essential for vertebral formation and segmental patterning of the peripheral nervous system1-4. How this key somitic subdivision is established remains poorly understood. Here we introduce three-dimensional culture systems of human pluripotent stem cells called somitoids and segmentoids, which recapitulate the formation of somite-like structures with anteroposterior identity. We identify a key function of the segmentation clock in converting temporal rhythmicity into the spatial regularity of anterior and posterior somitic compartments. We show that an initial 'salt and pepper' expression of the segmentation gene MESP2 in the newly formed segment is transformed into compartments of anterior and posterior identity through an active cell-sorting mechanism. Our research demonstrates that the major patterning modules that are involved in somitogenesis, including the clock and wavefront, anteroposterior polarity patterning and somite epithelialization, can be dissociated and operate independently in our in vitro systems. Together, we define a framework for the symmetry-breaking process that initiates somite polarity patterning. Our work provides a platform for decoding general principles of somitogenesis and advancing knowledge of human development.

Tension-driven multi-scale self-organisation in human iPSC-derived muscle fibers.

Human muscle is a hierarchically organised tissue with its contractile cells called myofibers packed into large myofiber bundles. Each myofiber contains periodic myofibrils built by hundreds of contractile sarcomeres that generate large mechanical forces. To better understand the mechanisms that coordinate human muscle morphogenesis from tissue to molecular scales, we adopted a simple in vitro system using induced pluripotent stem cell-derived human myogenic precursors. When grown on an unrestricted two-dimensional substrate, developing myofibers spontaneously align and self-organise into higher-order myofiber bundles, which grow and consolidate to stable sizes. Following a transcriptional boost of sarcomeric components, myofibrils assemble into chains of periodic sarcomeres that emerge across the entire myofiber. More efficient myofiber bundling accelerates the speed of sarcomerogenesis suggesting that tension generated by bundling promotes sarcomerogenesis. We tested this hypothesis by directly probing tension and found that tension build-up precedes sarcomere assembly and increases within each assembling myofibril. Furthermore, we found that myofiber ends stably attach to other myofibers using integrin-based attachments and thus myofiber bundling coincides with stable myofiber bundle attachment in vitro. A failure in stable myofiber attachment results in a collapse of the myofibrils. Overall, our results strongly suggest that mechanical tension across sarcomeric components as well as between differentiating myofibers is key to coordinate the multi-scale self-organisation of muscle morphogenesis.

Patterning with clocks and genetic cascades: Segmentation and regionalization of vertebrate versus insect body plans.

Oscillatory and sequential processes have been implicated in the spatial patterning of many embryonic tissues. For example, molecular clocks delimit segmental boundaries in vertebrates and insects and mediate lateral root formation in plants, whereas sequential gene activities are involved in the specification of regional identities of insect neuroblasts, vertebrate neural tube, vertebrate limb, and insect and vertebrate body axes. These processes take place in various tissues and organisms, and, hence, raise the question of what common themes and strategies they share. In this article, we review 2 processes that rely on the spatial regulation of periodic and sequential gene activities: segmentation and regionalization of the anterior-posterior (AP) axis of animal body plans. We study these processes in species that belong to 2 different phyla: vertebrates and insects. By contrasting 2 different processes (segmentation and regionalization) in species that belong to 2 distantly related phyla (arthropods and vertebrates), we elucidate the deep logic of patterning by oscillatory and sequential gene activities. Furthermore, in some of these organisms (e.g., the fruit fly Drosophila), a mode of AP patterning has evolved that seems not to overtly rely on oscillations or sequential gene activities, providing an opportunity to study the evolution of pattern formation mechanisms.

In vitro systems: A new window to the segmentation clock.

Segmental organization of the vertebrate body plan is established by the segmentation clock, a molecular oscillator that controls the periodicity of somite formation. Given the dynamic nature of the segmentation clock, in vivo studies in vertebrate embryos pose technical challenges. As an alternative, simpler models of the segmentation clock based on primary explants and pluripotent stem cells have recently been developed. These ex vivo and in vitro systems enable more quantitative analysis of oscillatory properties and expand the experimental repertoire applicable to the segmentation clock. Crucially, by eliminating the need for model organisms, in vitro models allow us to study the segmentation clock in new species, including our own. The human oscillator was recently recapitulated using induced pluripotent stem cells, providing a window into human development. Certainly, a combination of in vivo and in vitro work holds the most promising potential to unravel the mechanisms behind vertebrate segmentation.

Intracellular pH controls WNT downstream of glycolysis in amniote embryos.

Formation of the body of vertebrate embryos proceeds sequentially by posterior addition of tissues from the tail bud. Cells of the tail bud and the posterior presomitic mesoderm, which control posterior elongation1, exhibit a high level of aerobic glycolysis that is reminiscent of the metabolic status of cancer cells experiencing the Warburg effect2,3. Glycolytic activity downstream of fibroblast growth factor controls WNT signalling in the tail bud3. In the neuromesodermal precursors of the tail bud4, WNT signalling promotes the mesodermal fate that is required for sustained axial elongation, at the expense of the neural fate3,5. How glycolysis regulates WNT signalling in the tail bud is currently unknown. Here we used chicken embryos and human tail bud-like cells differentiated in vitro from induced pluripotent stem cells to show that these cells exhibit an inverted pH gradient, with the extracellular pH lower than the intracellular pH, as observed in cancer cells6. Our data suggest that glycolysis increases extrusion of lactate coupled to protons via the monocarboxylate symporters. This contributes to elevating the intracellular pH in these cells, which creates a favourable chemical environment for non-enzymatic ß-catenin acetylation downstream of WNT signalling. As acetylated ß-catenin promotes mesodermal rather than neural fate7, this ultimately leads to activation of mesodermal transcriptional WNT targets and specification of the paraxial mesoderm in tail bud precursors. Our work supports the notion that some tumour cells reactivate a developmental metabolic programme.

In vitro characterization of the human segmentation clock.

The segmental organization of the vertebral column is established early in embryogenesis, when pairs of somites are rhythmically produced by the presomitic mesoderm (PSM). The tempo of somite formation is controlled by a molecular oscillator known as the segmentation clock1,2. Although this oscillator has been well-characterized in model organisms1,2, whether a similar oscillator exists in humans remains unknown. Genetic analyses of patients with severe spine segmentation defects have implicated several human orthologues of cyclic genes that are associated with the mouse segmentation clock, suggesting that this oscillator might be conserved in humans3. Here we show that human PSM cells derived in vitro-as well as those of the mouse4-recapitulate the oscillations of the segmentation clock. Human PSM cells oscillate with a period two times longer than that of mouse cells (5 h versus 2.5 h), but are similarly regulated by FGF, WNT, Notch and YAP signalling5. Single-cell RNA sequencing reveals that mouse and human PSM cells in vitro follow a developmental trajectory similar to that of mouse PSM in vivo. Furthermore, we demonstrate that FGF signalling controls the phase and period of oscillations, expanding the role of this pathway beyond its classical interpretation in 'clock and wavefront' models1. Our work identifying the human segmentation clock represents an important milestone in understanding human developmental biology.

Distinct effects of tubulin isotype mutations on neurite growth in Caenorhabditis elegans.

Tubulins, the building block of microtubules (MTs), play a critical role in both supporting and regulating neurite growth. Eukaryotic genomes contain multiple tubulin isotypes, and their missense mutations cause a range of neurodevelopmental defects. Using the Caenorhabditis elegans touch receptor neurons, we analyzed the effects of 67 tubulin missense mutations on neurite growth. Three types of mutations emerged: 1) loss-of-function mutations, which cause mild defects in neurite growth; 2) antimorphic mutations, which map to the GTP binding site and intradimer and interdimer interfaces, significantly reduce MT stability, and cause severe neurite growth defects; and 3) neomorphic mutations, which map to the exterior surface, increase MT stability, and cause ectopic neurite growth. Structure-function analysis reveals a causal relationship between tubulin structure and MT stability. This stability affects neuronal morphogenesis. As part of this analysis, we engineered several disease-associated human tubulin mutations into C. elegans genes and examined their impact on neuronal development at the cellular level. We also discovered an α-tubulin (TBA-7) that appears to destabilize MTs. Loss of TBA-7 led to the formation of hyperstable MTs and the generation of ectopic neurites; the lack of potential sites for polyamination and polyglutamination on TBA-7 may be responsible for this destabilization.

GEFs and Rac GTPases control directional specificity of neurite extension along the anterior-posterior axis.

Although previous studies have identified many extracellular guidance molecules and intracellular signaling proteins that regulate axonal outgrowth and extension, most were conducted in the context of unidirectional neurite growth, in which the guidance cues either attract or repel growth cones. Very few studies addressed how intracellular signaling molecules differentially specify bidirectional outgrowth. Here, using the bipolar PLM neurons in Caenorhabditis elegans, we show that the guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs) UNC-73/Trio and TIAM-1 promote anterior and posterior neurite extension, respectively. The Rac subfamily GTPases act downstream of the GEFs; CED-10/Rac1 is activated by TIAM-1, whereas CED-10 and MIG-2/RhoG act redundantly downstream of UNC-73. Moreover, these two pathways antagonize each other and thus regulate the directional bias of neuritogenesis. Our study suggests that directional specificity of neurite extension is conferred through the intracellular activation of distinct GEFs and Rac GTPases.

Hox Genes Promote Neuronal Subtype Diversification through Posterior Induction in Caenorhabditis elegans.

Although Hox genes specify the differentiation of neuronal subtypes along the anterior-posterior axis, their mode of action is not entirely understood. Using two subtypes of the touch receptor neurons (TRNs) in C. elegans, we found that a "posterior induction" mechanism underlies the Hox control of terminal neuronal differentiation. The anterior subtype maintains a default TRN state, whereas the posterior subtype undergoes further morphological and transcriptional specification induced by the posterior Hox proteins, mainly EGL-5/Abd-B. Misexpression of the posterior Hox proteins transformed the anterior TRN subtype toward a posterior identity both morphologically and genetically. The specification of the posterior subtype requires EGL-5-induced repression of TALE cofactors, which antagonize EGL-5 functions, and the activation of rfip-1, a component of recycling endosomes, which mediates Hox activities by promoting subtype-specific neurite outgrowth. Finally, EGL-5 is required for subtype-specific circuit formation by acting in both the sensory neuron and downstream interneuron to promote functional connectivity.

Dishevelled attenuates the repelling activity of Wnt signaling during neurite outgrowth in Caenorhabditis elegans.

Wnt proteins regulate axonal outgrowth along the anterior-posterior axis, but the intracellular mechanisms that modulate the strength of Wnt signaling in axon guidance are largely unknown. Using the Caenorhabditis elegans mechanosensory PLM neurons, we found that posteriorly enriched LIN-44/Wnt acts as a repellent to promote anteriorly directed neurite outgrowth through the LIN-17/Frizzled receptor, instead of controlling neuronal polarity as previously thought. Dishevelled (Dsh) proteins DSH-1 and MIG-5 redundantly mediate the repulsive activity of the Wnt signals to induce anterior outgrowth, whereas DSH-1 also provides feedback inhibition to attenuate the signaling to allow posterior outgrowth against the Wnt gradient. This inhibitory function of DSH-1, which requires its dishevelled, Egl-10, and pleckstrin (DEP) domain, acts by promoting LIN-17 phosphorylation and is antagonized by planar cell polarity signaling components Van Gogh (VANG-1) and Prickle (PRKL-1). Our results suggest that Dsh proteins both respond to Wnt signals to shape neuronal projections and moderate its activity to fine-tune neuronal morphology.