Early Evolutionary Selection of NAD Biosynthesis Pathway in Bacteria.

Bacteria use two alternative pathways to synthesize nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) from nicotinamide (Nam). A short, two-step route proceeds through nicotinamide mononucleotide (NMN) formation, whereas the other pathway, a four-step route, includes the deamidation of Nam and the reamidation of nicotinic acid adenine dinucleotide (NAAD) to NAD. In addition to having twice as many enzymatic steps, the four-step route appears energetically unfavourable, because the amidation of NAAD includes the cleavage of ATP to AMP. Therefore, it is surprising that this pathway is prevalent not only in bacteria but also in yeast and plants. Here, we demonstrate that the considerably higher chemical stability of the deamidated intermediates, compared with their amidated counterparts, might compensate for the additional energy expenditure, at least at elevated temperatures. Moreover, comprehensive bioinformatics analyses of the available >6000 bacterial genomes indicate that an early selection of one or the other pathway occurred. The mathematical modelling of the NAD pathway dynamics supports this hypothesis, as there appear to be no advantages in having both pathways.

Natural isotope correction improves analysis of protein modification dynamics.

Stable isotope labelling in combination with high-resolution mass spectrometry approaches are increasingly used to analyze both metabolite and protein modification dynamics. To enable correct estimation of the resulting dynamics, it is critical to correct the measured values for naturally occurring stable isotopes, a process commonly called isotopologue correction or deconvolution. While the importance of isotopologue correction is well recognized in metabolomics, it has received far less attention in proteomics approaches. Although several tools exist that enable isotopologue correction of mass spectrometry data, the majority is tailored for the analysis of low molecular weight metabolites. We here present PICor which has been developed for isotopologue correction of complex isotope labelling experiments in proteomics or metabolomics and demonstrate the importance of appropriate correction for accurate determination of protein modifications dynamics, using histone acetylation as an example.

Combined Metabolic and Chemical (CoMetChem) Labeling Using Stable Isotopes-a Strategy to Reveal Site-Specific Histone Acetylation and Deacetylation Rates by LC-MS.

Histone acetylation is an important, reversible post-translational protein modification and a hallmark of epigenetic regulation. However, little is known about the dynamics of this process, due to the lack of analytical methods that can capture site-specific acetylation and deacetylation reactions. We present a new approach that combines metabolic and chemical labeling (CoMetChem) using uniformly 13C-labeled glucose and stable isotope-labeled acetic anhydride. Thereby, chemically equivalent, fully acetylated histone species are generated, enabling accurate relative quantification of site-specific lysine acetylation dynamics in tryptic peptides using high-resolution mass spectrometry. We show that CoMetChem enables site-specific quantification of the incorporation or loss of lysine acetylation over time, allowing the determination of reaction rates for acetylation and deacetylation. Thus, the CoMetChem methodology provides a comprehensive description of site-specific acetylation dynamics.

Hypoxia Inducible Factor 1α Inhibits the Expression of Immunosuppressive Tryptophan-2,3-Dioxygenase in Glioblastoma.

Abnormal circulation in solid tumors results in hypoxia, which modulates both tumor intrinsic malignant properties as well as anti-tumor immune responses. Given the importance of hypoxia in glioblastoma (GBM) biology and particularly in shaping anti-tumor immunity, we analyzed which immunomodulatory genes are differentially regulated in response to hypoxia in GBM cells. Gene expression analyses identified the immunosuppressive enzyme tryptophan-2,3-dioxygenase (TDO2) as the second most downregulated gene in GBM cells cultured under hypoxic conditions. TDO2 catalyses the oxidation of tryptophan to N-formyl kynurenine, which is the first and rate-limiting step of Trp degradation along the kynurenine pathway (KP). In multiple GBM cell lines hypoxia reduced TDO2 expression both at mRNA and protein levels. The downregulation of TDO2 through hypoxia was reversible as re-oxygenation rescued TDO2 expression. Computational modeling of tryptophan metabolism predicted reduced flux through the KP and lower intracellular concentrations of kynurenine and its downstream metabolite 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid under hypoxia. Metabolic measurements confirmed the predicted changes, thus demonstrating the ability of the mathematical model to infer intracellular tryptophan metabolite concentrations. Moreover, we identified hypoxia inducible factor 1α (HIF1α) to regulate TDO2 expression under hypoxic conditions, as the HIF1α-stabilizing agents dimethyloxalylglycine (DMOG) and cobalt chloride reduced TDO2 expression. Knockdown of HIF1α restored the expression of TDO2 upon cobalt chloride treatment, confirming that HIF1α controls TDO2 expression. To investigate the immunoregulatory effects of this novel mechanism of TDO2 regulation, we co-cultured isolated T cells with TDO2-expressing GBM cells under normoxic and hypoxic conditions. Under normoxia TDO2-expressing GBM cells suppressed T cell proliferation, while hypoxia restored the proliferation of the T cells, likely due to the reduction in kynurenine levels produced by the GBM cells. Taken together, our data suggest that the regulation of TDO2 expression by HIF1α may be involved in modulating anti-tumor immunity in GBM.

Programmable DNA-binding proteins from Burkholderia provide a fresh perspective on the TALE-like repeat domain.

The tandem repeats of transcription activator like effectors (TALEs) mediate sequence-specific DNA binding using a simple code. Naturally, TALEs are injected by Xanthomonas bacteria into plant cells to manipulate the host transcriptome. In the laboratory TALE DNA binding domains are reprogrammed and used to target a fused functional domain to a genomic locus of choice. Research into the natural diversity of TALE-like proteins may provide resources for the further improvement of current TALE technology. Here we describe TALE-like proteins from the endosymbiotic bacterium Burkholderia rhizoxinica, termed Bat proteins. Bat repeat domains mediate sequence-specific DNA binding with the same code as TALEs, despite less than 40% sequence identity. We show that Bat proteins can be adapted for use as transcription factors and nucleases and that sequence preferences can be reprogrammed. Unlike TALEs, the core repeats of each Bat protein are highly polymorphic. This feature allowed us to explore alternative strategies for the design of custom Bat repeat arrays, providing novel insights into the functional relevance of non-RVD residues. The Bat proteins offer fertile grounds for research into the creation of improved programmable DNA-binding proteins and comparative insights into TALE-like evolution.