Medicaid prior authorization policies and imprisonment among patients with schizophrenia.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the impact of Medicaid prior authorization for atypical antipsychotics on the prevalence of schizophrenia among the prison population. Study DESIGN: We collected drug-level information on prior authorization restrictions from Medicaid programs in 30 states to determine which states had prior authorization requirements before 2004. We linked the regulatory data to a survey of prison inmates conducted in 2004. METHODS: We used a sample of 16,844 inmates from a nationally representative survey and analyzed the data using cross-sectional regression. To capture the impact of prior authorization, we estimated 2 models: the first included an indicator variable for states requiring prior authorization, and a second model used per capita atypical usage. RESULTS: Evidence indicated that prior authorization restrictions on atypical antipsychotics are associated with an increase in the odds of a schizophrenic resident being imprisoned in a state. State-level prior authorization requirements for atypical antipsychotics are associated with a 2.7% increase in the likelihood that an imprisoned inmate displays psychotic symptoms, and a 1.25 increase in the likelihood that an inmate was previously diagnosed with schizophrenia by a physician. Higher state-level atypical prescriptions per capita are also associated with lower likelihood of psychotic symptoms and of prior schizophrenia diagnosis among prisoners. CONCLUSIONS: Prior authorization requirements for atypical antipsychotics, which are designed to reduce healthcare costs, are associated with greater prevalence of mental illness within the criminal justice system.This association raises important questions about whether increased costs to the criminal justice system might mitigate or offset prescription drug savings created by prior authorization requirements.

Do strict formularies replicate failure for patients with schizophrenia?

OBJECTIVES: We measure the impact of Medicaid formulary restrictions (FRs) on the rate at which patients who previously failed a drug therapy for schizophrenia are returned to that therapy. STUDY DESIGN: We collect drug-level information on FRs in state Medicaid programs and examine claims of noninstitutionalized Medicaid enrollees with schizophrenia. METHODS: A difference-in-differences technique is used to compute the change in the probability of adverse outcomes before and after a state adopts an FR. This change is compared with the change in failure probabilities in states with no FRs. RESULTS: Regardless of FRs, patients tend to resume the same drug after an adverse medical event. In 2005, 69% of inpatient mental health-related admissions resulted in patients resuming the same therapy within 6 months of the event, and 63% of patients resumed the same drug after a mental health-related emergency department admission. In states where FRs limit access to all atypicals, the likelihood of a patient resuming the same atypical after having ceased treatment for at least 30 days increases by 20.1% relative to patients in states without restrictions. Additionally, patients in states that impose FRs on all atypicals are 11.6% more likely to discontinue all treatments. CONCLUSIONS: FR may increase the likelihood that patients will return to failed treatments or cease treatment altogether. Although formularies are designed to reduce drug spending, an unintended consequence may be an increase in the use of other services needed to treat patients with schizophrenia.

Systematic review of long-acting injectables versus oral atypical antipsychotics on hospitalization in schizophrenia.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the impact of long-acting injectables (LAIs) versus oral antipsychotics (OAs) on hospitalizations among patients with schizophrenia by conducting a systematic literature review of studies with different study designs and performing a meta-analysis. METHODS: Using the PubMed database and major psychiatric conference proceedings, a systematic literature review for January 2000 to July 2013 was performed to identify English-language studies evaluating schizophrenia patients treated with atypical antipsychotics. Studies reporting hospitalization rates as a percentage of patients hospitalized or as the number of hospitalizations per person per year were selected. The primary meta-analysis assessed the percentage decrease in hospitalization rates before and after treatment initiation for matched time periods. The secondary meta-analysis assessed the absolute rate of hospitalization during follow-up. Pooled treatment-effect estimates were calculated using random-effects models. To account for differences in patient and study-level characteristics between studies, meta-regression analyses were used. Subset analyses further explored the heterogeneity across study designs. RESULTS: Fifty-eight studies evaluating 25 arms (LAIs: 13 arms, 4516 patients; OAs: 12 arms, 23,516 patients) in the primary meta-analysis and 78 arms (LAIs: 12 arms, 4481 patients; OAs: 66 arms, 96,230 patients) in the secondary meta-analysis were identified. Reduction in hospitalization rates for LAIs was 20.7 percentage points higher than that of OAs (random-effects estimates: LAIs = 56.2% vs. OAs = 35.5%, P = 0.023). Controlling for patient and study characteristics, the adjusted percentage reduction in hospitalization rates for LAIs was 26.4 percentage points higher than for OAs (95% CI: 3.3-49.5, P = 0.027). As for the secondary meta-analysis, no significant difference between LAIs and OAs was observed (random-effects estimate: -8.6, 95% CI: -18.1-1.0, P = 0.077). Subset analyses across type of study yielded consistent results. Limitations of this analysis include the long observation period, which may not reflect current treatment patterns, the use of all-cause hospitalization, which may not be solely related to schizophrenia, and the fact that most studies in the LAI cohort evaluated risperidone. CONCLUSION: The primary results of this meta-analysis, including studies with both interventional and non-interventional designs and using meta-regressions, suggest that LAIs are associated with higher reductions in hospitalization rates for schizophrenia patients compared to OAs.

Cost of schizophrenia in the Medicare program.

Medicare beneficiaries diagnosed with non-schizoaffective schizophrenia (MBS) in a 5% national Medicare fee-for-service sample from 2003-2007 were followed for 1-6 years. Medicare population and cost estimates also were made from 2001-2009. Service utilization and Medicare (and beneficiary share) payments for all services except prescription drugs were analyzed. Although adults with schizophrenia make up approximately 1% of the US adult population, they represent about 1.5% of Medicare beneficiaries. MBSs are disproportionately male and minority compared to national data describing the overall schizophrenia population. They also are younger than the general Medicare population (GMB): males are 9 years younger than females on average, and most enter Medicare long before age 65 through eligibility for social security disability, remaining in the program until death. The cost of care for MBSs in 2009 was, on average, 80% higher than for the average GMB per patient year (2010 dollars), and more than 50% of these costs are attributable to a combination of psychiatric and medical hospitalizations, concentrated in about 30% of MBSs with 1 or more hospitalizations per year. From 2004-2009, total estimated Medicare fee-for-service payments for MBSs increased from $9.4 billion to $11.5 billion, excluding Part D prescription drugs and payments for services to MBSs in Medicare for less than 1 year. Study results characterize utilization and costs for other services and suggest opportunities for further study to inform policy to improve access and continuity of care and decrease costs to the Medicare program associated with this population.

Association of self-monitoring of blood glucose use on glycated hemoglobin and weight in newly diagnosed, insulin-naïve adult patients with type 2 diabetes.

BACKGROUND: Clinical trials have shown that self-monitoring of blood glucose (SMBG) combined with patient education and medication titration can lead to improved glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) and reduced weight in recently diagnosed non-insulin-treated type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) patients. This retrospective matched cohort study assessed the association of SMBG with achieving long-term clinical outcomes in these patients in a real-world clinical setting. METHODS: Using electronic medical records (2008-2011), we selected a population of adult patients recently diagnosed with T2DM not receiving insulin who were SMBG users and a population of non-SMBG controls with similar demographic and clinical characteristics using propensity score matching. The main study outcomes compared between the two groups were time to achieve (1) HbA1c <7% for patients with baseline HbA1c ≥ 7% and (2) a ≥ 5% reduction in weight from baseline. RESULTS: Of the 589 patients identified in each group, 113 in each group had a baseline HbA1c ≥ 7% (mean, 8.2%). The SMBG users were more likely to achieve an HbA1c <7% (12 months: 58.4% versus 38.9%, p = .0037; 36 months: 84.0% versus 70.0%, p = .0013) and to do so faster (median, 6.5 versus 20.5 months; log-rank p = .0016). Self-monitoring of blood glucose was associated with faster weight reduction (median time to achieve a ≥ 5% reduction, 23.5 versus 35.9 months for SMBG and non-SMBG, respectively; log-rank p = .0005). CONCLUSIONS: In newly diagnosed T2DM insulin-naïve patients, SMBG users had an improved rate of achieving long-term glycemic control and weight loss in a real-world clinical setting.

A Medicaid and commercial insured claims-based study to estimate improved antipsychotic medication adherence among patients with schizophrenia.

Compliance with antipsychotic medication is clinically important but challenging for schizophrenia patients. Clinical trials and epidemiological studies strongly suggest that improved compliance results in reduced hospitalizations and other adverse outcomes. Examination of Medicaid and commercial claim data suggests that a significant portion of schizophrenia patients have a regular pattern of visits with one outpatient professional, yet are noncompliant with their medication. For many of these patients, results show that the administration of once-monthly verifiable therapy would improve compliance.

Association between adherence to and persistence with atypical antipsychotics and psychiatric relapse among US Medicaid-enrolled patients with schizophrenia.

OBJECTIVE: Assess association between adherence and persistence with second-generation oral antipsychotics (SGOAs), psychiatric-related relapse and healthcare utilization among patients with schizophrenia experiencing two or more psychiatric-related relapses. METHODS: A retrospective analysis of the US Medicaid Multi-State Database for 2004-2008. Patients with schizophrenia (aged 18-64) with two or more psychiatric-related relapses within 1 year after SGOA initiation were selected. Associations between a dichotomous measure of adherence and persistence with SGOAs and psychiatric-related relapse and healthcare utilization were assessed using unadjusted and covariate-adjusted regression models. No adjustment was made for multiplicity. KEY FINDINGS: Study cohort consisted of 3714 patients with mean age of 42.6 years. Overall, 45% of patients were adherent and 50% persistent with SGOAs. Unadjusted and covariate-adjusted analysis results suggested the 12-month psychiatric-related relapse rate was lower among adherent/persistent patients versus non-adherent patients (unadjusted mean: 3.85 versus 4.13; P < 0.001; covariate-adjusted incident rate ratio (IRR): 0.90; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.86-0.94) and non-persistent patients (unadjusted mean: 3.81 versus 4.21; P < 0.001; covariate-adjusted IRR: 0.88; 95%CI: 0.84-0.92). Compared with non-persistent patients, persistent patients had significantly lower rates of all-cause inpatient admissions (IRR: 0.87; 95%CI: 0.82-0.93) and emergency department visits (IRR: 0.78; 95%CI: 0.73-0.85). CONCLUSIONS: Although SGOAs have proven efficacy in lowering the rate of psychiatric-related relapses, lower adherence and persistence rates may be an inhibiting factor in achieving optimal benefits from SGOAs. Future research is needed to assess whether newer antipsychotics with less-frequent dosing may improve adherence among patients with schizophrenia.

Automated glycemic pattern analysis can improve health care professional efficiency and accuracy.

BACKGROUND: Health care professionals (HCPs) routinely review handwritten blood glucose (BG) logbooks during office visits of patients with diabetes. METHOD: In this study, 64 HCPs were asked to assess glycemic patterns and estimate BG averages in six simulated handwritten logbooks. The HCPs then reviewed the pattern logs and averages in six OneTouch® Verio™IQ meters containing corresponding data sets. RESULTS: The average time needed for pattern review was 7.3 min for handwritten logbooks versus 0.9 min using the meter. The total error rate for logbook pattern identification was 43.0% compared with the meter. The mean percentage deviation between HCP estimates of 30-day BG averages and actual values was 14.5%. CONCLUSIONS: The meter is associated with faster and more accurate pattern analysis compared with handwritten logbooks.

Medicaid cost control measures aimed at second-generation antipsychotics led to less use of all antipsychotics.

"Atypical" or second-generation antipsychotics are a class of drug introduced in the 1990 s for the treatment of schizophrenia. Given their growing use and rising cost, these and other psychotherapeutic drugs are increasingly subject to prior authorization and other restrictions in state Medicaid programs. To evaluate the effects of these policies, we collected drug-level information on their use and on utilization management strategies--for example, requirements for prior authorization, quantity limits, and so-called step therapy--in thirty state Medicaid programs between 1999 and 2008. In the eleven states that instituted prior authorization during that period, use of atypicals per enrollee rose by 14 percent, versus 19 percent in the other nineteen states. Prior authorization also had spillover effects, in that reduced use of drugs subject to this requirement was not fully offset by the substitution of other atypicals or of typical antipsychotics. To understand the impact on patients and the resulting use of health services, studies should be undertaken of a large, national sample of Medicaid enrollees being treated with atypical antipsychotics. Comparative effectiveness research should guide physicians and health plans on appropriate first treatments, while prior authorization policies should focus on moving patients to appropriate second-line therapies when necessary.

Health care resource utilization and costs in a commercially insured population of patients with bipolar disorder type I and frequent psychiatric interventions.

BACKGROUND: Bipolar disorder type I (BP-I) is one of the most expensive behavioral diagnoses in the United States. Characterizing patient populations that consume significant resources would be useful for designing and implementing additional resources and targeted interventions to reduce the costs of BP-I. OBJECTIVE: This analysis compared the characteristics, health care resource utilization, and costs of commercially insured patients with BP-I (indicating a history of manic or mixed episodes) and frequent psychiatric interventions (FPIs) versus those without FPIs. METHODS: This retrospective study used data from commercial insurance claims to identify adults with FPIs (≥2 clinically significant events [CSEs]) or without FPIs during a 12-month identification period (year 1). CSEs included emergency department (ED) visits or hospitalizations with a principal diagnosis of BP-I, the addition of a new medication to the observed treatment regimen, or a ≥50% increase in BP-I medication dose. Demographic and clinical characteristics were evaluated during the identification period, and health care resource utilization and costs were evaluated during a 12-month follow-up period (year 2). RESULTS: Data from 7620 patients with FPIs and 11,571 without FPIs were included (women, 67.1% and 59.9%, respectively; P < 0.001). Of patients with FPIs in the identification period, 22.2% continued to have FPIs in the follow-up period. In the follow-up period, the group with FPIs had a greater proportion of patients with psychiatric-related inpatient hospitalizations (14.6% vs 2.8%) and ED visits (11.6% vs 2.7%) [corrected], a longer mean hospital length of stay (11.74% vs 8.24 days) [corrected], and greater adjusted mean psychiatric-related costs ($6617 vs $3276) and all-cause health care costs ($14,091 vs $9357) compared with the group without FPIs (all, P < 0.001). The risks for a psychiatric-related hospitalization and an ED visit during the follow-up period were significantly greater in the group with FPIs compared with the group without (odds ratios, 4.86 and 3.76, respectively; both, P < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: In this retrospective analysis, FPIs were associated with a greater number of FPIs during follow-up, ∼2-fold the psychiatric-related costs, and 1.5-fold the all-cause health care costs compared with no FPIs. These data highlight the economic burden of FPIs and the potential for health care cost reductions from improved management options in these patients.

Assessment of effectiveness measures in patients with schizophrenia initiated on risperidone long-acting therapy: the SOURCE study results.

BACKGROUND: To evaluate effectiveness outcomes in a real-world setting in patients with schizophrenia initiating risperidone long-acting therapy (RLAT). METHODS: This was a 24-month, multicenter, prospective, longitudinal, observational study in patients with schizophrenia who were initiated on RLAT. Physicians could change treatment during the study as clinically warranted. Data were collected at baseline and subsequently every 3 months up to 24 months. Effectiveness outcomes included changes in illness severity as measured by Clinical Global Impression-Severity (CGI-S) scale; functional scores as measured by Personal and Social Performance (PSP) scale, Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF), and Strauss-Carpenter Levels of Functioning (LOF); and health status (Medical Outcomes Survey Short Form-36 [SF-36]). Life-table methodology was used to estimate the cumulative probability of relapse over time. Adverse events were evaluated for safety. RESULTS: 532 patients were enrolled in the study; 209 (39.3%) completed the 24-month study and 305 (57.3%) had at least 12 months of follow-up data. The mean (SD) age of patients was 42.3 (12.8) years. Most patients were male (66.4%) and either Caucasian (60.3%) or African American (23.7%). All changes in CGI-S from baseline at each subsequent 3-month follow-up visit were statistically significant (p < .0001), indicating improvement in disease severity. Improvements were also noted for the PSP, GAF, and total LOF, indicating improvement in daily functioning and health outcome. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with schizophrenia who were initiated on RLAT demonstrated improvements in measures of effectiveness within 3 months, which persisted over 24 months. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT00246194.

Resource utilization in patients with schizophrenia who initiated risperidone long-acting therapy: results from the Schizophrenia Outcomes Utilization Relapse and Clinical Evaluation (SOURCE).

BACKGROUND: Schizophrenia is a chronic mental health disorder associated with increased hospital admissions and excessive utilization of outpatient services and long-term care. This analysis examined health care resource utilization from a 24-month observational study of patients with schizophrenia initiated on risperidone long-acting therapy (RLAT). METHODS: Schizophrenia Outcomes Utilization Relapse and Clinical Evaluation (SOURCE) was a 24-month observational study designed to examine real-world treatment outcomes by prospectively following patients with schizophrenia initiated on RLAT. At baseline visit, prior hospitalization and ER visit dates were obtained for the previous 12 months and subsequent hospitalization visit dates were obtained at 3-month visits, if available. The health care resource utilization outcomes measures observed in this analysis were hospitalizations for any reason, psychiatric-related hospitalizations, and emergency room (ER) visits. Incidence density analysis was used to assess pre-event and postevent rates per person-year (PY). RESULTS: The primary medical resource utilization analysis included 435 patients who had a baseline visit, ≥1 postbaseline visits after RLAT initiation, and valid hospitalization dates. The number of hospitalizations and ER visits per PY declined significantly (p < .0001) after initiation with RLAT. A 41% decrease (difference of -0.29 hospitalizations per PY [95% CI: -0.39 to -0.18] from baseline) in hospitalizations for any reason, a 56% decrease (a difference of -0.35 hospitalizations per PY [95% CI: -0.44 to -0.26] from baseline) in psychiatric-related hospitalizations, and a 40% decrease (-0.26 hospitalizations per PY [95% CI: -0.44 to -0.10] from baseline) in ER visits were observed after the baseline period. The percentage of psychiatric-related hospitalizations decreased significantly after RLAT initiation, and patients had fewer inpatient hospitalizations and ER visits (all p < .0001). CONCLUSION: The results suggest that treatment with RLAT may result in decreased hospitalizations for patients with schizophrenia. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT00246194.

Changes in schizophrenia-related hospitalization and ER use among patients receiving paliperidone palmitate: results from a clinical trial with a 52-week open-label extension (OLE).

BACKGROUND: Schizophrenia affects ∼1.1% of the United States population, resulting in substantial direct, indirect and societal costs. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate hospitalization rates associated with use of paliperidone palmitate (PP). METHODS: Data were from a variable-duration double-blind (DB), randomized, relapse-prevention comparison (NCT00111189) of PP vs. placebo (Pbo), followed by a 1-year open-label extension (OLE). Between-phase change in schizophrenia-related hospitalizations was evaluated using data from an investigator-completed questionnaire. Change in hospitalizations using patients before enrollment who participated in the OLE phase was also analyzed. Poisson regression was used to evaluate changes in incidence density within exposure category and by schizophrenia duration. RESULTS: A total of 160 patients in the PP-PP group and 153 in the Pbo-PP group from the DB to the OLE phase were included. Mean age (standard deviation [SD]), gender, and duration of schizophrenia were similar at the start of the DB phase (Pbo: 38.5 years [10.6], 51.0% male, 68.0% ≥5 years' duration; PP: 37.3 years [11.4] (p = 0.342); 51.9% male (p = 0.874); 70.0% ≥5 years' duration (p = 0.698), respectively. From the DB to the end of the OLE phase, the number of hospitalizations per person-year for patients treated during the DB phase with Pbo significantly declined from 0.27 to 0.06 (78% reduction; p = 0.005). A statistically nonsignificant difference was observed for PP patients treated during the DB phase with PP (0.11-0.04; 63.6% reduction; p = 0.076), compared with the OLE phase. Change from before enrollment to the end of the OLE phase (n = 381) produced similar results (0.35-0.04; 88.6% reduction; p < 0.001). Patients who enroll in a clinical trial may be different from the general population and this may affect the generalizability of results. CONCLUSION: From the double-blind to the open-label phase and from prior to the trial until the end of the open-label phase, hospitalizations significantly decreased for patients with schizophrenia treated with PP.

Prevalence of liver disease in veterans with bipolar disorder or schizophrenia.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the prevalence of three liver diseases [hepatitis C virus (HCV), nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and alcohol-induced cirrhosis] in patients (veterans) with/without schizophrenia/schizoaffective disorder and bipolar disorder. METHODS: A retrospective electronic chart review of Veterans Integrated Services Network 20 facilities from January 1, 2001 to December 21, 2006 selected patients to one of two groups: schizophrenia/schizoaffective disorder or bipolar disorder. Patients in both groups were compared with veterans in an equal-sized random sample from the same data set of veterans without psychiatric diagnoses. Logistic regression models evaluated risk for overall liver diseases as well as HCV, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and alcoholic-induced cirrhosis. RESULTS: Patients with schizophrenia (n=6521) had a higher prevalence of liver disease [22.4% versus 3.2%; odds ratio (OR)=8.73]; HCV (16.5% versus 1.9%; OR=10.21); and alcohol-related cirrhosis (1.6% versus 0.4%; OR=4.09) than matched controls. Patients with bipolar disorder (n=5319) had a higher prevalence of liver disease (21.5% versus 3.5%; OR=7.58); HCV (15.5% versus 2.1%; OR=8.60); and alcohol-related cirrhosis (1.6% versus 0.4%; OR=3.82) than matched controls. Risk factors for liver disease in patients with schizophrenia (versus matched controls) included diabetes (OR=1.29), hypertension (OR=1.27), HIV (OR=3.54), substance use disorder (SUD) (OR=2.28), alcohol use disorder (OR=3.05) and schizophrenia (OR=2.74). Risk factors for development of liver disease for patients with bipolar disorder: diabetes (OR=1.40), HIV (OR=3.66), SUD (OR=2.68), alcohol use disorder (OR=3.22) and bipolar disorder (OR=2.27). CONCLUSIONS: This study in veterans shows that the presence of mental illness and its comorbidities represents a significant risk factor for the diagnosis of liver disease, including HCV and alcohol-related cirrhosis.

Effectiveness of injectable risperidone long-acting therapy for schizophrenia: data from the US, Spain, Australia, and Belgium.

BACKGROUND: Because wide variations in mental health care utilization exist throughout the world, determining long-term effectiveness of psychotropic medications in a real-world setting would be beneficial to physicians and patients. The purpose of this analysis was to describe the effectiveness of injectable risperidone long-acting therapy (RLAT) for schizophrenia across countries. METHODS: This was a pragmatic analysis of data from two prospective observational studies conducted in the US (Schizophrenia Outcomes Utilization Relapse and Clinical Evaluation [SOURCE]; ClinicalTrials.gov registration number for the SOURCE study: NCT00246194) and Spain, Australia, and Belgium (electronic Schizophrenia Treatment Adherence Registry [eSTAR]). Two separate analyses were performed to assess clinical improvement during the study and estimate psychiatric hospitalization rates before and after RLAT initiation. Clinical improvement was evaluated using the Clinical Global Impressions-Severity (CGI-S) and Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF) scales, and change from baseline was evaluated using paired t tests. Psychiatric hospitalization rates were analyzed using incidence densities, and the bootstrap resampling method was used to examine differences between the pre-baseline and post-baseline periods. RESULTS: The initial sample comprised 3,069 patients (US, n = 532; Spain, n = 1,345; Australia, n = 784; and Belgium, n = 408). In all, 24 months of study participation, completed by 39.3% (n = 209), 62.7% (n = 843), 45.8% (n = 359), and 64.2% (n = 262) of patients from the US, Spain, Australia, and Belgium, respectively, were included in the clinical analysis. Improvements compared with baseline were observed on both clinical assessments across countries (P < 0.001 at all post-baseline visits). The mean improvement was approximately 1 point on the CGI-S and 15 points on the GAF. A total of 435 (81.8%), 1,339 (99.6%), 734 (93.6%), and 393 (96.3%) patients from the US, Spain, Australia, and Belgium, respectively, had ≥1 post-baseline visit and were included in the analysis of psychiatric hospitalization rates. Hospitalization rates decreased significantly in all countries regardless of hospitalization status at RLAT initiation (P < 0.0001) and decreased significantly in the US and Spain (P < 0.0001) when the analysis was limited to outpatients only. CONCLUSIONS: RLAT in patients with schizophrenia was associated with improvements in clinical and functional outcomes and decreased hospitalization rates in the US, Spain, Australia, and Belgium, despite differences in health care delivery systems.

Medication adherence and hospitalization among patients with schizophrenia treated with antipsychotics.

OBJECTIVE: This analysis assessed rates of medication adherence and predictors of nonadherence and hospitalization among patients treated with long-acting injectable and oral antipsychotic therapies. METHODS: Data were from a retrospective analysis of Florida Medicaid recipients with schizophrenic disorder (ICD-9-CM code 295.XX) who received a prescription for an antipsychotic between July 1, 2004, and June 30, 2005. Patients were required to have filled one additional antipsychotic prescription during follow-up. Adherence measures included medication possession ratio (MPR), medication persistence, medication consistency, and maximum gap in treatment. Multivariate logistic regression models identified predictors of nonadherence and hospitalization. RESULTS: Patients were considered adherent if they had an MPR ≥ .8. A total of 12,032 patients met selection criteria. The mean ± SD MPR was .79 ± .23, medication persistence was 94.1% ± 16.4%, medication consistency was 83.3% ± 16.4%, and the maximum gap in treatment was 29.7 ± 41.4 days. Thirty-seven percent of patients were hospitalized for any cause, and 32% had a psychiatric hospitalization. Predictors of nonadherence included newly starting treatment; younger age; a substance abuse diagnosis; use of a mood stabilizer, antidepressant, anxiolytic, or anticholinergic; and receipt of long-acting first-generation antipsychotics. Receipt of long-acting second-generation therapy or receipt of both first- and second-generation medications was associated with lower likelihood of nonadherence. Predictors of hospitalization risk included a diagnosis of other psychoses or substance abuse, anticholinergic use, and nonadherence to therapy. CONCLUSIONS: Results document rates of antipsychotic adherence and predictors of nonadherence and hospitalization. Findings may be useful to health plan administrators, formulary decision makers, and physicians.

Characteristics, healthcare utilization and costs of bipolar disorder type I patients with and without frequent psychiatric intervention in a Medicaid population.

OBJECTIVE: To compare characteristics, healthcare resource utilization and costs of Medicaid bipolar disorder (BPD) type I (BP-I) patients with and without frequent psychiatric intervention (FPI). METHODS: Adults with BP-I, ≥ 1 prescription claim for a mood stabilizer/atypical antipsychotic and 24 months' continuous medical/prescription coverage were identified (MarketScan* Medicaid database). Patients with ≥ 2 clinically significant events (CSEs) during a 12-month identification period had FPI. CSEs included emergency department (ED) visits or hospitalizations with a principal diagnosis of BPD, addition of a new medication to the first observed treatment regimen or ≥ 50% increase in BPD medication dose. Demographic and clinical characteristics were evaluated for the identification period, and healthcare utilization and costs for the 12-month follow-up. Multivariate generalized linear modeling and multivariate logistic regression, respectively, were used to evaluate the impact of FPI on all-cause and psychiatric-related costs and risk of psychiatric-related hospitalization and ED visit during follow-up. RESULTS: Of 5,527 BP-I patients, 53% had FPI. Relative to patients without FPI, those with FPI were younger and more likely to be female, had higher adjusted all-cause (+US$3,232, p < 0.001) and psychiatric-related (+US$2,519, p < 0.001) costs and higher risk of hospitalization (adjusted odds ratio [OR] = 3.681, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 2.85-4.75) and ED visit (OR = 3.094, 95% CI = 2.55-3.76). LIMITATIONS: Analysis used a convenience sample of Medicaid enrollees in several geographically dispersed states, limiting generalizability. Analyses of administrative claims data depend on accurate diagnoses and data entry. CONCLUSION: BP-I patients with FPI incurred significantly higher healthcare resource utilization and costs during the follow-up period than those without FPI.

Perceptions and prescribing considerations among US psychiatrists regarding drug-drug interactions associated with oral atypical antipsychotics.

OBJECTIVE: Contemporary literature has demonstrated the potential for drug-drug interactions (DDIs) with oral atypical antipsychotic (OAA) agents. However, less is known about psychiatrists' perceptions about DDIs when prescribing OAAs. This study addresses this gap by surveying US psychiatrists about their perceptions of DDI when prescribing a new OAA. METHODS: An online survey of 131 US psychiatrists was conducted to assess if considerations of DDIs were taken into account when prescribing a new OAA within their practice and prescribing patterns. For each survey question, results are presented as the proportion of psychiatrists in each rating category. Data were collected on physicians' awareness and concern about DDIs when prescribing OAAs, perception of frequency and severity of OAA-related DDIs, and methods of monitoring and preventing OAA-related DDIs. RESULTS: Of the psychiatrists surveyed, 9.2% considered themselves well-informed (rating of 10/10) about OAA-related DDIs. In the 3-month period preceding the survey date, psychiatrists reported that on average 7.5 (SD 12.4) of their patients experienced a potentially OAA-related DDI event which represented an average of 2.5% (SD 4.8%) of their total number of patients. In all, 19.8% of the psychiatrists reported they were currently tracking the level of confirmed OAA-related DDI events in their practices; these psychiatrists reported a mean 21.1% incidence rate of confirmed DDI events experienced by patients starting a new OAA therapy in their practice. The psychiatrists ranked the risks of cardiovascular events and of neurological impairment as the two most frequent and severe potential DDI events to consider when prescribing a new OAA, in combination with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, mood stabilizers, and antihypertensive agents, the drugs most frequently associated with the most severe OAA-related DDIs. CONCLUSIONS: Psychiatrists, on recall of recent cases, perceive DDI events to be frequent in patients starting a new OAA therapy. While there appears to be some awareness of DDI-related issues among psychiatrists, this survey of psychiatrists perceptions suggests the need for systematic tracking of OAA-related DDI events and additional psychiatrist training on optimal OAA choice to prevent DDIs.

Clinical characteristics and resource utilization of patients with bipolar disorder who have frequent psychiatric interventions.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the demographics, clinical characteristics and resource utilization of patients with bipolar disorder who required frequent psychiatric interventions (FPIs) with those needing fewer interventions in the Duke Healthcare System database between 1999 and 2005. METHODS: This retrospective analysis was conducted using electronic medical records of bipolar patients with FPIs, defined as having ≥4 clinically significant events (CSEs) in any 12-month period while in the Duke University Healthcare System. CSEs were composed of emergency room visits, inpatient hospitalizations, or a change in psychotropic medication due to psychiatric symptoms (score≥4 on the Clinical Global Impressions-Severity scale). Data were compared between patients with and without FPIs. RESULTS: Of 632 patients with bipolar disorder 52.5% were identified as having FPIs. These patients were younger and more often female and African American than those with fewer interventions (p<0.01 for all). Patients with FPIs were generally prescribed more psychotropic and non-psychotropic medications, utilized more healthcare resources and experienced more psychiatric co-morbidities than those who did not require FPIs (p<0.01 for all). LIMITATIONS: These results are from a single healthcare system and may not be generalizable to all patients with bipolar disorder. This analysis was retrospective and relied on availability of adequate information recording and coding of diagnoses by physicians. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with bipolar disorder who required FPIs were significantly different from those with fewer clinically defined interventions with respect to their demographic and clinical characteristics and prescribed medications.

Predicting hospital admission and discharge with symptom or function scores in patients with schizophrenia: pooled analysis of a clinical trial extension.

BACKGROUND: The purpose of this analysis was to evaluate relationships between hospital admission or discharge and scores for symptom or functioning in patients with schizophrenia. METHODS: Data were from three 52-week open-label extensions of the double-blind pivotal trials of paliperidone extended-release (ER). Symptoms and patient function were measured every 4 weeks using the Personal and Social Performance (PSP) scale and the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS). The intent-to-treat analysis set was defined as open-label patients who had at least one post-baseline PSP and PANSS measurement. Time until first hospitalization was evaluated using the Cox proportional hazard model with categorical time-dependent measures for the PSP (1 to 30, 31 to 70, 71 to 100) or PANSS (< 75, >/= 75 to < 95, >/= 95), as well as age, gender, schizophrenia duration, and country. Similar analyses were performed for time to discharge. RESULTS: Of the 1,077 enrolled patients, 1,028 (95.5%) met study criteria; of these, 382 (37.2%) were hospitalized at open-label baseline. Compared with patients with PSP >/= 71 group, the hazard for new hospitalization was 8.351 times greater (P = 0.0001) for patients with the poorest functioning (PSP 1 to 30) and 1.977 times greater (P = 0.0295) for patients with PSP of 31-70 compared to the >/= 71 group. The hazard for new hospitalization was 5.457 times greater (P < 0.0001) for patients PANSS >/= 95 and 2.316 times greater (P = 0.0027) for the >/= 75 to < 95 group compared with the < 75 group. For patients hospitalized at baseline, the PANSS >/= 95 patients had a discharge hazard that was 0.456 times lower than for the < 75 patients (P < 0.0001). The hazard for discharge was 0.646 times lower (P = 0.0012) for the PANSS >/= 75 to < 95 group compared with the < 75 group. A patient's country was a significant predictor variable, with US patients being admitted and discharged faster. CONCLUSIONS: Better functioning or being less symptomatic is associated with reduced risk for hospitalization and greater chance for early discharge. Treatments or programs that reduce symptoms or improve function decrease the risk of hospitalization in community patients or increase the chance of discharge for hospitalized patients.