Physical Activity, but Not Body Mass Index Is Associated With Blood Pressure in Young Children.

PURPOSE: This study examined associations between physical activity (PA) and obesity with blood pressure (BP) in young children. Furthermore, a possible moderating effect of obesity status was examined. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was completed with 121 children (3.96 [1.14] y). BP, weight, and height were measured, and body mass index (BMI) was calculated. Z scores were calculated for BMI, systolic, and diastolic values. Accelerometry measured time spent in PA intensities. Correlations and regressions examined relationships among PA intensities, BMI z scores, and BP z scores and to determine if obesity status moderated these relationships. RESULTS: On average, the children spent 52 minutes per day in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, 31% were considered overweight/obese, and 15% were considered hypertensive. After adjusting for confounders, participation in moderate, vigorous, and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity was related with lower systolic and diastolic BP z scores (P < .05). BMI z score was not related to BP values. Obesity status did not moderate the relationships between time spent in PA and BP. CONCLUSIONS: Participation in PA, but not obesity, was related to lower BP levels in young children. The impact PA has on BP is the same regardless of obesity status. Thus, young children should be encouraged to be active in different intensities to benefit the cardiovascular system.

Youth sport participation, injury history, and current physical activity among young adults.

Objective: To examine the interaction between high school (HS) sports participation and injury history with current moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) among young adults. Participants: Participants (N = 236) were 18-25 years old, not currently injured, and reported no physical activity limitations. Methods: Participants completed online demographic, injury history, and physical activity surveys. A two-way analysis of covariance was used to test the interaction between HS athlete status and previous injury severity on current self-reported MVPA. Results: Participants were 22.2 ± 2.1 years, primarily White (81.8%) or Asian (6.4%), and female (77.5%). After including body mass index and race as covariates, there was a statistically significant interaction between HS athlete status and previous injury history such that current MVPA was higher among former HS athletes compared to HS recreational/nonathletes when individuals reported no injuries or mild injury severity. MVPA was similar across athlete status groups when participants reported high levels of injury severity. Conclusions: Future studies should examine whether young adults who have experienced multiple and/or severe injuries as competitive HS athletes have unique physical activity barriers.

Self-Reported Physical Activity and Perception of Athleticism in American Equestrian Athletes.

BACKGROUND: Over 75% of American adults are not meeting aerobic and muscular physical activity recommendations, with the majority being females. Equestrian activities are a potential avenue to increase physical activity, especially in females who account for approximately 90% of sport participants. This study describes perceptions of equestrian activities and establishes the patterns of self-reported equestrian, barn work, and nonequestrian physical activity engagement to understand participation in activities that may sustain physical activity across the lifespan. METHODS: American equestrians (n = 2551) completed an anonymous online survey with questions about perceptions and benefits of equestrian activities, demographics, and engagement in equestrian activities, barn work, and nonequestrian activities. RESULTS: There were 2039 completed responses, (95.6% female), with representation from all regions of the United States. Professionals (20.6%), amateurs (39.1%), and recreational (40.3%) comprised participation status. Significantly fewer recreational participants perceived equestrian as physical activity and as a sport than amateurs (P < .05) and professionals (P < .05). Engagement in equestrian and barn work physical activity was significantly higher in professionals (P < .0001), followed by amateurs (P < .0001), with the lowest in recreational equestrians (P = .001). Professional and amateur equestrians engaged in significantly more nonequestrian physical activity than recreational participants (P < .05). CONCLUSIONS: Equestrian physical activity engagement is dependent on the status of participation. Equestrian, barn work, and nonequestrian physical activity do meet physical activity aerobic and muscular recommendations and should be encouraged as a physical activity for females across the lifespan.

Sports Specialization, Physical Literacy, and Physical Activity Levels in Young Adults.

CONTEXT: Youth sport specialization may be associated with physical literacy and physical activity in young adulthood. The purposes of this study were to compare young adult (18-25 y) physical literacy and physical activity by high school sport specialization status and to examine the relationship between current physical activity and physical literacy. DESIGN: Retrospective, cross-sectional study design. METHODS: Participants were recruited from ResearchMatch, university classes, and social media posts. Participants (N = 172; aged 22.1 [2.1] y; 80.1% female) completed the following anonymous surveys on REDCap to assess: demographics and injury history, sport specialization, physical literacy (PLAYself), and physical activity (Godin Leisure-Time Exercise Questionnaire). RESULTS: When controlling for age, there were no statistically significant differences in physical literacy (F2,166 = 2.02, P = .14) or moderate to vigorous physical activity (F2,161 = 0.24, P = .79) between sport specialization groups. There was a moderate, positive relationship between physical literacy and physical activity (r = .33, P < .001). CONCLUSIONS: Young adult physical literacy and physical activity were similar regardless of youth sport specialization level. Young adult physical literacy was positively associated with physical activity. Future studies should consider physical literacy as a possible correlate of physical activity among young adults.

Examining physical literacy in young adults: psychometric properties of the PLAYself.

The PLAYself is a commonly utilized tool to assess physical literacy in child and adolescent populations. Currently, there are no measurement tools designed to examine physical literacy among adults. The purpose of this cross-sectional study was to examine the psychometric properties of PLAYself subsections in a sample of young adults. Two hundred forty-five young adults (ages 18-25) from the United States completed the PLAYself questionnaire. Multiple principal component analyses using promax rotation were utilized to assess the current factor structure of the PLAYself subsections. Each subsection was analyzed independently to explore individual summary components. PLAYself subsections were assessed for reliability using Cronbach's α, inter-item correlations, and item-total correlations. A multi-factor structure was identified for each PLAYself subsection. A 2-factor structure was identified for the Environment subsection accounting for 55.2% of the variance. A 2-factor structure was identified for the Physical Literacy Self-Description subsection accounting for 57.1% of the variance. A 3-factor structure was identified for the Relative Ranking of Literacies subsection accounting for 70.3% of the variance. The Environment, Physical Literacy Self-Description, and Relative Ranking of Literacies subsections demonstrated poor (α = 0.577), good (α = 0.89), and acceptable (α = 0.79) internal consistencies, respectively. The Physical Literacy Self-Description subsection demonstrated the best psychometric properties in our sample, and thus may be an appropriate tool to assess physical literacy in a young adult population until additional measurement tools are developed.

Feasibility of the Mothers and Daughters Moving Together Physical Activity Intervention.

PURPOSE: Preschool-aged children, especially girls, have low levels of physical activity that may be influenced through parent role modeling. Evidence for mother-daughter interventions that include preschool-aged children is sparse. The primary purpose of this study was to examine the feasibility of recruitment procedures, protocol compliance, and participant retention for the Mothers and Daughters Moving Together intervention. The secondary aim was to provide initial estimates of the intervention effect on mother-daughter and family physical activity co-participation, moderate to vigorous physical activity, and maternal physical activity enjoyment and support. METHOD: This nonrandomized feasibility study included mother-daughter (2-5 y) dyads who self-selected into the intervention (n = 21 dyads) or comparison (n = 10 dyads) group. RESULTS: The recruitment rate was 41.9% (31 enrolled/74 interested). Intervention group mother-daughter dyads attended 57% of intervention sessions. Among the whole sample, 70% to 80% of participants (mothers and daughters) had at least 4 valid days of accelerometer data at preintervention and postintervention. The retention rate was 90% (28/31 dyads completed the study). Initial estimates of intervention effect indicated small, positive changes for mother-daughter physical activity co-participation, and maternal physical activity support and enjoyment. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides valuable information that should be confirmed using an adequately powered and randomized study design.

Parent Motivational Climate, Sport Enrollment Motives, and Young Athlete Commitment and Enjoyment in Year-Round Swimming.

Parents are known to influence the athlete sport experience through motivational climates. Athletes' perception of motivational climates and their own motives for sport participation influence enjoyment and long-term sport commitment. It is unknown, however, the extent parent motives for initially enrolling their child in a year-round sports program associate with children's sport participation enjoyment and commitment. The purposes of this study were to (a) determine parent motives for enrolling their child (5-8 years) in year-round swimming and (b) explore the relationships of parent motives and motivational climates with child enjoyment and commitment. Parents (n = 40) completed questionnaires on enrollment motives and motivational climate, while children (n = 40) answered questions on enjoyment and commitment. Of the seven motives measured, parents enrolled children in swimming primarily for fitness benefits (M = 4.5, SD = .45) followed by skill mastery (M = 4.31, SD = .48) and fun (M = 4.10, SD = .51) reasons. Findings revealed the fitness motive was moderately, negatively correlated with the success-without-effort facet of a performance climate (r = -.50, p < .01). The fun motive was moderately, positively associated with commitment (r = .43, p < .01). Parent motives for enrolling their child in sport may impact the young child sport experience and long-term sport continuation via motivational climates, enjoyment, and commitment.

Physical Activity Barriers and Assets in Rural Appalachian Kentucky: A Mixed-Methods Study.

Obesity is an increasing public health concern in the U.S. and a contributor to chronic illness, with trends revealing a rise in adult obesity and chronic disease rates among the most vulnerable and disadvantaged populations, including those in rural communities. A mixed-methods approach was used to examine perspectives on perceived physical activity barriers, resources, and level of community support. Researchers utilized the socioecological model to examine the multiple domains that support physical activity in rural Appalachia. The present study focuses on baseline data, including a cohort survey to assess physical activity, health status, and barriers to physical activity, and five focus groups with elected community leaders, community residents, members, and key stakeholders to assess perspectives on physical activity barriers and resources within the county. The cohort survey sample (N = 152) reported a median of 6 barriers (range 0-13) to participating in at least 30 min of physical activity daily. The qualitative analysis yielded three overarching themes related to physical activity participation: lack of motivation, physical environment, and cultural barriers. This mixed-methods study revealed the challenges and perceptions among rural residents across the socioecological model when assessing physical inactivity. Findings can be used to tailor future interventions focused on expanding social support, designing infrastructure, and creating policies that promote physical activity.

Promoting Strength Training Among Baby Boomers: Message Framing Effects on Motivation and Behavior.

BACKGROUND: Regular participation in strength training significantly enhances older adults' physical and functional health, yet only 14% of adults over age 50 report engaging in strength training at least twice per week. Exercise messages about why and how older adults should engage in strength training could influence their perceptions of and participation in the behavior. This study was designed to promote strength training among adults aged 50-70 and to determine whether the message frame accompanying a brief workout would have an impact on participants' motivation, self-efficacy, and/or physical activity behavior. METHODS: Participants (N = 308) were randomly assigned to one of four message conditions: Easy Intrinsic, Hard Intrinsic, Easy Extrinsic, or Hard Extrinsic. Immediately after completing baseline measures of motivation and physical activity, participants received the recommended strength training workout and corresponding motivational message. They completed follow-up measures of motivation and physical activity 2 weeks later. RESULTS: Controlled regulation was higher at follow-up among participants exposed to an extrinsic message relative to an intrinsic message (F(3,208) = 3.08, p = .03). Strength training (Z = - 5.95, p < .001) and moderate physical activity (Z = - 3.23, p = .001) increased among participants not engaging in regular strength training at baseline. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest message framing may have a short-term impact on Baby Boomers' physical activity motivation, such that emphasizing extrinsic goals (i.e., weight loss and appearance) may contribute to controlled motivation. However, repeated measurements are needed to determine the longer-term maintenance and influence of these effects.

Physical Activity Coparticipation Among Parent-Young-Child Dyads.

PURPOSE: This study examined patterns of physical activity coparticipation among parent-child (2-5 y) dyads. METHOD: The dyads (N = 47; 51% mother-child) each wore a Bluetooth-enabled accelerometer for 8 days to measure physical activity and physical activity coparticipation. The parents completed demographic and self-reported family physical activity questionnaires. RESULTS: The parent-child dyads spent 145 (79) minutes per day in-proximity according to the Bluetooth-enabled accelerometers. The majority (90%) of parent-child in-proximity time was spent with the parent and child engaged in some combination of sedentary or light activities. Child light, moderate, and vigorous physical activity was not associated with parent light (P = .12) or moderate to vigorous physical activity (P = .45), but was positively associated with parent-child in-proximity active minutes (light, moderate, and vigorous) (P < .01). Children in the highest tertile of parent-child physical activity coparticipation engaged in more daily moderate to vigorous physical activity compared with children in the lowest tertile (72.7 vs 50.3 min). There was a positive, statistically significant association between self-reported and objective measures of physical activity coparticipation (r = .47, P = .001). CONCLUSION: Children who engaged in the most physical activity with their parent had the highest moderate to vigorous physical activity. Future studies should continue to provide contextual information about how parents and children spend their time together to improve family-based physical activity interventions.

Impact of a standard versus collective-efficacy enhanced intervention to increase physical activity among mothers.

Objective: Mothers have lower moderate-to-vigorous physical activity than non-mothers and this negatively impacts health. Group dynamics interventions have been successful for increasing physical activity, yet studies using these strategies among mothers are limited and rely on self-reported physical activity. The goal of this study was to examine the effectiveness of a collective-efficacy enhanced physical activity intervention that used group dynamics principles compared to a standard group-based intervention. Design: Mothers (N = 86) were randomly assigned to a 6-week intervention (collective-efficacy enhanced) or standard health education/walking group. Main outcome measures: participants wore pedometers for 1-week and completed a self-efficacy questionnaire at pre-intervention, post-intervention, and 3-month follow-up. Results: There were statistically significant increases in activity minutes (p = 0.05) and step counts (p = 0.049) and no changes in self-efficacy (p = 0.74) from pre- to post-intervention. There were no group by time interactions for changes in physical activity or self-efficacy. None of the changes in physical activity were maintained at follow-up. Conclusions: There is a continued need to understand how to use social factors to promote sustained physical activity among mothers.

Why and How Should I Exercise? A Content Analysis of Popular Magazines.

Objectives: In this study, we investigated how exercise is portrayed in popular, non-fitness focused magazines targeting various audiences. Methods: Ten popular magazines were selected based on target audience (Teens, Young Adults, Family, Middle-Aged Adults, Older Adults). Ten digital articles from each magazine's health/fitness section were coded for the primary reason to exercise, the frequency, intensity, time, and type of exercise recommended, and whether their recommendations were evidence-based. Frequencies were calculated by target audience. Results: The primary reason for exercise differed by audience, with appearance and fitness empha- sized by magazines targeting younger audiences, and mental health/quality of life emphasized in magazines targeting older adults. Over half of the articles described exercises that should be completed 2x-3x/week for <10 minutes. Articles frequently recommended circuit workouts that could be completed at moderate or self-selected intensity. Only 10% of articles cited peer- reviewed evidence. Conclusions: Results showed popular magazines often represent exercise as something that can be completed in a short time frame with meaningful benefits. However, an overemphasis on appearance in young adults is apparent, which could undermine intrinsic mo- tivation and behavior. Improved communication between researchers and popular magazines is needed to promote sharing of credible, evidence-based exercise content with the public.

Goals Matter: Exercising for Well-Being But Not Health or Appearance Predicts Future Exercise Among Parents.

BACKGROUND: Many parents are insufficiently active. Further research is needed to understand the goals that drive sustained exercise participation among parents. The purpose of this study was to use self-determination theory derived constructs to examine the relationship between parents' exercise goals and their autonomous motivation, controlled motivation, and exercise behavior across 1 year. METHODS: Mothers (n = 226) and fathers (n = 70) of children less than 16 years completed the Exercise Motivations Inventory-2 and, 1 year later, the Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire-2 and Godin Leisure-Time Exercise Questionnaire. Linear mixed effects models were used to examine the longitudinal relationships between exercise goals and autonomous motivation, controlled motivation, and leisure-time exercise. RESULTS: All goals except weight management were significantly associated with autonomous motivation, whereas only weight and appearance goals predicted controlled motivation. Exercising for stress management and revitalization, but not health- or appearance-related goals, was significantly related to exercise behavior over 1 year. CONCLUSIONS: Only goals related to immediate affective outcomes were associated with both autonomous motivation and exercise behavior over time. These findings support recent calls to "rebrand exercise" as a means to improve daily well-being. Such goals may drive parents to prioritize exercise because they value the immediate benefits it provides.

High Versus Low Theoretical Fidelity Pedometer Intervention Using Social-Cognitive Theory on Steps and Self-Efficacy.

PURPOSE: This study was designed to compare a low versus high theoretical fidelity pedometer intervention applying social-cognitive theory on step counts and self-efficacy. METHOD: Fifty-six public university employees participated in a 10-week randomized controlled trial with 2 conditions that varied in theoretical fidelity. Participants in the high theoretical fidelity condition wore a pedometer and participated in a weekly group walk followed by a meeting to discuss cognitive-behavioral strategies targeting self-efficacy. Participants in the low theoretical fidelity condition met for a group walk and also used a pedometer as a motivational tool and to monitor steps. Step counts were assessed throughout the 10-week intervention and after a no-treatment follow-up (20 weeks and 30 weeks). Self-efficacy was measured preintervention and postintervention. RESULTS: Participants in the high theoretical fidelity condition increased daily steps by 2,283 from preintervention to postintervention, whereas participants in the low fidelity condition demonstrated minimal change during the same time period (p = .002). Individuals attending at least 80% of the sessions in the high theoretical fidelity condition showed an increase of 3,217 daily steps (d = 1.03), whereas low attenders increased by 925 (d = 0.40). Attendance had minimal impact in the low theoretical fidelity condition. Follow-up data revealed that step counts were at least somewhat maintained. For self-efficacy, participants in the high, compared with those in the low, theoretical fidelity condition showed greater improvements. CONCLUSION: Findings highlight the importance of basing activity promotion efforts on theory. The high theoretical fidelity intervention that included cognitive-behavioral strategies targeting self-efficacy was more effective than the low theoretical fidelity intervention, especially for those with high attendance.

Collective Efficacy, Physical Activity, and Health Outcomes Among Mothers.

Motherhood is associated with low rates of physical activity that increase disease risk. Most theory-based approaches to increasing physical activity focus on personal rather than social factors. The purpose of this study was to examine the associations among perceptions of community collective efficacy and objectively measured physical activity, self-efficacy, social support, and health. Mothers completed questionnaires and wore a pedometer for 7 days. There was a significant, positive association between physical activity and collective efficacy-social cohesion subscale. In the regression analysis, only age and social support were independent predictors of physical activity. Future studies should examine relationships among collective efficacy and social support and physical activity.

Accelerometer-Measured Patterns of Shared Physical Activity Among Mother-Young Child Dyads.

BACKGROUND: Many mothers and young children are not meeting physical activity guidelines. Parent-child coparticipation in physical activity (ie, shared physical activity) provides opportunities for social modeling and might be associated with child physical activity. There is very little information about shared physical activity using objective measures. METHODS: Participants (N = 17 mother-young child dyads) completed a demographic survey and height/weight measurements, and wore a Bluetooth® accelerometer for 1 week. Accelerometers were initialized using the proximity function to yield both individual and proximity [a minute-by-minute log of whether the 2 accelerometers were in- or out-of-range (∼50 m or less)] data. Shared physical activity was calculated in MATLAB by overlaying individual and proximity accelerometer data. RESULTS: Mother-child dyads spent approximately 2 hours per day in shared time that was mostly shared sedentary activities. Less than 1% of shared minutes per day were spent in shared moderate to vigorous physical activity. CONCLUSIONS: Mothers and young children spent a small portion of their day in shared activities. Most mother-child shared time was spent in sedentary or light activities rather than moderate to vigorous physical activity. This method for objectively measuring shared physical activity provides novel information about the context in which physical activity occurs and could be used to understand patterns of physical activity among other dyads.

Physical Activity Experiences and Beliefs Among Single Mothers: A Qualitative Study.

PURPOSE: Single motherhood has been associated with negative health consequences such as depression and cardiovascular disease. Physical activity might reduce these consequences, but little is known about physical activity experiences and beliefs that might inform interventions and programs for single mothers. The present study used social-cognitive theory as a framework to explore physical activity beliefs and experiences among single mothers. METHOD: Single mothers (N = 14) completed a semistructured interview and the International Physical Activity Questionnaire. Participants were categorized into 3 activity levels, and data were analyzed according to these categories. RESULTS: All participants reported barriers to physical activity. Physically active single mothers seemed to be more confident in their ability to overcome these barriers and more likely to plan physical activity in their daily routine, and they more frequently reported having social support compared with low-active single mothers. Across all activity levels, participants focused on the physical outcomes of physical activity participation such as weight loss. CONCLUSIONS: These results provide information that is useful for designing and delivering behavioral interventions for increasing physical activity among single mothers.

Popular Media Representations of Physical Activity Among Mothers.

PURPOSE: Many mothers fail to meet the recommended guidelines for physical activity. Popular media magazines targeting mothers provide information about physical activity and health, but little is known about the framing and content of physical activity messages within these sources. The aim of this content analysis was to analyze the framing and content (i.e., benefits, consequences, and sources of self-efficacy) of physical activity messages directed toward mothers in popular magazines. METHOD: Ten popular magazines were selected for data analysis and coded independently by two researchers in NVivo Version 10.0 for gain- or loss-framed messages, benefits and consequences of physical activity, and sources of self-efficacy. RESULTS: Most of the 164 articles encouraged physical activity by presenting benefits associated with physical activity. These benefits primarily focused on weight loss and fitness gains and few articles used self-efficacy messages to enhance confidence in physical activity participation. CONCLUSIONS: It is promising that popular media magazines used gain-framed messages about the benefits of physical activity for mothers. Future research should focus on finding ways of using popular media outlets to promote a more comprehensive set of physical activity benefits, enhance physical activity self-efficacy, and determine the impact of such messages on physical activity participation.

Overcoming barriers to exercise among parents: a social cognitive theory perspective.

Parents face numerous barriers to exercise and exhibit high levels of inactivity. Examining theory-based determinants of exercise among parents may inform interventions for this population. The purpose of this study was to test a social-cognitive model of parental exercise participation over a 12-month period. Mothers (n = 226) and fathers (n = 70) of children <16 completed measures of exercise, barriers self-efficacy, perceived barriers, and exercise planning at baseline and 1 year later. Panel analyses were used to test the hypothesized relationships. Barriers self-efficacy was related to exercise directly and indirectly through perceived barriers and prioritization/planning. Prioritization and planning also mediated the relationship between perceived barriers and exercise. These paths remained significant at 12 months. These results suggest efforts to increase exercise in parents should focus on improving confidence to overcome exercise barriers, reducing perceptions of barriers, and helping parents make specific plans for prioritizing and engaging in exercise.

Increasing collective efficacy for physical activity: Design and rationale of Moms UNITE for Health.

BACKGROUND: Mothers are a population that engages in low levels of physical activity due to unique barriers to physical activity. As such, there is a need to develop and implement physical activity interventions for mothers that can be delivered in community settings. The objective of this article is to describe the Moms UNITE (Using Networks to Increase Togetherness and Efficacy) for Health walking intervention. This intervention, based on social cognitive theory, is designed to compare a collective efficacy enhanced intervention to a standard intervention for increasing physical activity and secondary outcomes. METHODS: In this 6-week, randomized controlled trial, mothers will be assigned to either the standard or intervention (collective efficacy) group. Both groups will receive the same walking intervention and an evidence-based health education program. Strategies and messages focusing on building collective efficacy will be used in the intervention group. Data will be collected at baseline, post-intervention, and follow-up (after a 3 month no-intervention period) using a mixed methods approach. RESULTS: Quantitative data will include anthropometric measurements, objective physical activity, and questionnaires assessing self- and collective-efficacy. Post-intervention focus groups and weekly process evaluation surveys will describe participants' experiences within the program. CONCLUSIONS: This paper will serve as a theoretical framework for researchers and public health practitioners to develop and implement community-based walking programs for mothers.