Testosterone deficiency impairs cardiac interfibrillar mitochondrial function and myocardial contractility while inducing oxidative stress.

Introduction: Clinical studies have shown that low levels of endogenous testosterone are associated with cardiovascular diseases. Considering the intimate connection between oxidative metabolism and myocardial contractility, we determined the effects of testosterone deficiency on the two spatially distinct subpopulations of cardiac mitochondria, subsarcolemmal (SSM) and interfibrillar (IFM). Methods: We assessed cardiac function and cardiac mitochondria structure of SSM and IFM after 12 weeks of testosterone deficiency in male Wistar rats. Results and Discussion: Results show that low testosterone reduced myocardial contractility. Orchidectomy increased total left ventricular mitochondrial protein in the SSM, but not in IFM. The membrane potential, size and internal complexity in the IFM after orchidectomy were higher compared to the SHAM group. However, the rate of oxidative phosphorylation with all substrates in the IFM after orchidectomy was lower compared to the SHAM group. Testosterone replacement restored these changes. In the testosterone-deficient SSM group, oxidative phosphorylation was decreased with palmitoyl-L-carnitine as substrate; however, the mitochondrial calcium retention capacity in IFM was increased. There was no difference in swelling of the mitochondria in either group. These changes in IFM were followed by a reduction in phosphorylated form of AMP-activated protein kinase (p-AMPK-α), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha (PGC-1α) translocation to mitochondria and decreased mitochondrial transcription factor A (TFAM). Testosterone deficiency increased NADPH oxidase (NOX), angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) protein expression and reduced mitochondrial antioxidant proteins such as manganese superoxide dismutase (Mn-SOD) and catalase in the IFM. Treatment with apocynin (1.5 mM in drinking water) normalized myocardial contractility and interfibrillar mitochondrial function in the testosterone depleted animals. In conclusion, our findings demonstrate that testosterone deficiency leads to reduced myocardial contractility and impaired cardiac interfibrillar mitochondrial function. Our data suggest the involvement of reactive oxygen species, with a possibility of NOX as an enzymatic source.

Endurance training restores spatially distinct cardiac mitochondrial function and myocardial contractility in ovariectomized rats.

We previously demonstrated that the loss of female hormones induces cardiac and mitochondrial dysfunction in the female heart. Here, we show the impact of endurance training for twelve weeks, a nonpharmacological therapy against cardiovascular disease caused by ovariectomy and its contribution to cardiac contractility, mitochondrial quality control, bioenergetics and oxidative damage. We found that ovariectomy induced cardiac hypertrophy and dysfunction by decreasing SERCA2 and increasing phospholamban protein expression. Endurance training restored myocardial contractility, SERCA2 levels, increased calcium transient in ovariectomized rats but did not change phospholamban protein expression or cardiac hypertrophy. Additionally, ovariectomy decreased the amount of intermyofibrillar mitochondria and induced mitochondrial fragmentation that were accompanied by decreased levels of mitofusin 1, PGC-1α, NRF-1, total AMPK-α and mitochondrial Tfam. Endurance training prevented all these features except for mitofusin 1. Ovariectomy reduced O2 consumption, elevated O2.- release and increased Ca2+-induced mitochondrial permeability transition pore opening in both mitochondrial subpopulations. Ovariectomy also increased NOX-4 protein expression in the heart, reduced mitochondrial Mn-SOD, catalase protein expression and increased protein carbonylation in both mitochondrial subpopulations, which were prevented by endurance training. Taken together, our findings show that endurance training prevented cardiac contractile dysfunction and mitochondrial quality control in ovariectomized rats.

Estrogen regulates spatially distinct cardiac mitochondrial subpopulations.

Increased susceptibility to permeability transition pore (mPTP) is a significant concern to decreased cardiac performance in postmenopausal females. The goal of this study was to assess the effects of estrogen deficiency on the two spatially distinct mitochondrial subpopulations from left ventricle: subsarcolemmal mitochondria (SSM) and intermyofibrillar mitochondria (IFM) based on: morphology, membrane potential, oxidative phosphorylation, mPTP and reactive oxygen species production. Female rats (8weeks old) that underwent bilateral ovariectomy were randomly assigned to receive daily treatment with placebo (OVX), estrogen replacement (OVX+E2) and Sham for 60days. The yield for IFM was found higher in the OVX group and lower in the SSM. SSM internal complexity and size were higher in the OVX group, although membrane potential was not different. The maximal rate of mitochondrial respiration, states 3 and 4, using glutamate+malate as substrate, were higher in IFM and SSM from the OVX group. The respiratory control ratio (RCR - state3/state 4), was not different in both SSM and IFM with glutamate+malate. The ADP:O ratio was found lower in IFM and SSM from OVX compared to Sham. When pyruvate was used, state 3 was found unchanged in both IFM and SSM, state 4 was greater in IFM from OVX rats compared to Sham and the ADP/O ratio was decreased. The RCR was unchanged in both subpopulations. The IFM from OVX rats presented a lower Ca2+retention capacity compared to Sham, however, the SSM remained unchanged. Hydrogen peroxide formation was found increased in the IFM from OVX animals with glutamate+malate and rotenone+succinate as substrates. The SSM showed increased ROS production only with rotenone+succinate. Western blot analyzes showed decreased levels of PGC-1α and NRF-1 in the OVX group. Estrogen replacement was able to restore most of the alterations induced by ovariectomy. In conclusion, our data shows that estrogen deficiency has distinct effects on the two spatially distinct mitochondrial subpopulations in oxidative phosphorylation, morphology, calcium retention capacity and ROS production.

Sex differences in the regulation of spatially distinct cardiac mitochondrial subpopulations.

Spatially distinct mitochondrial subpopulation may mediate myocardial pathology through permeability transition pore opening (MPTP). The goal of this study was to assess sex differences on the two spatially distinct mitochondrial subpopulations: subsarcolemmal mitochondria (SSM) and intermyofibrillar mitochondria (IFM) based on morphology, membrane potential, mitochondrial function, oxidative phosphorylation, and MPTP. Aged matched Wistar rats were used to study SSM and IFM. Mitochondrial size was larger in SSM than in IFM in both genders. However, SSM internal complexity, yield, and membrane potential were higher in male than in female. The maximal rate of mitochondrial respiration, states 3 and 4, using glutamate + malate as substrate, were higher in IFM and SSM in the male group compared to female. The respiratory control ratio (RCR-state3/state 4), was not different in both SSM and IFM with glutamate + malate. The ADP:O ratio was found higher in IFM and SSM from female compared to males. When pyruvate was used, state 3 was found unchanged in both IFM and SSM, state 4 was also greater in male IFM compared to female. The RCR increased in the SSM while IFM remained the same. State 4 was higher in male SSM while in the IFM remained the same. The IFM presented a higher Ca(2+) retention capacity compared with SSM, however, there was a greater sensitivity to Ca(2+)-induced MPTP in SSM and IFM in the male group compared to female. In conclusion, our data show that spatially distinct mitochondrial subpopulations have sex-based differences in oxidative phosphorylation, morphology, and calcium retention capacity.