A mutation to a fish ice-binding protein synthesized in transgenic Caenorhabditis elegans modulates its cold tolerance.

A cryoprotectant known as ice-binding protein (IBP) is thought to facilitate the cold survival of plants, insects, and fungi. Here, we prepared a genetically modified Caenorhabditis elegans strain to synthesize fish-derived IBPs in its body wall muscles and examined whether the antifreeze activity modification of this IBP by point mutation affects the cold tolerance of this worm. We chose a 65-residue IBP identified from notched-fin eelpout, for which the replacement of the 20th alanine residue (A20) modifies its antifreeze activity. These mutant proteins are denoted A20L, A20G, A20T, A20V, and A20I along with the wild-type (WT) protein. We evaluated the survival rate (%) of the transgenic C. elegans that synthesized each IBP mutant following 24 h of preservation at -5, +2, and +5 °C. Significantly, a dramatic improvement in the survival rate was detected for the worms synthesizing the activity-enhanced mutants (A20T and A20I), especially at +2 °C. In contrast, the rate was not improved by the expression of the defective mutants (A20L, A20G, WT and A20V). The survival rate (%) probably correlates with the antifreeze activity of the IBP. These data suggest that IBP protects the cell membrane by employing its ice-binding mechanism, which ultimately improves the cold tolerance of an IBP-containing animal.

Integration of human inspection and artificial intelligence-based morphological typing of patient-derived organoids reveals interpatient heterogeneity of colorectal cancer.

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a heterogenous disease, and patients have differences in therapeutic response. However, the mechanisms underlying interpatient heterogeneity in the response to chemotherapeutic agents remain to be elucidated, and molecular tumor characteristics are required to select patients for specific therapies. Patient-derived organoids (PDOs) established from CRCs recapitulate various biological characteristics of tumor tissues, including cellular heterogeneity and the response to chemotherapy. Patient-derived organoids established from CRCs show various morphologies, but there are no criteria for defining these morphologies, which hampers the analysis of their biological significance. Here, we developed an artificial intelligence (AI)-based classifier to categorize PDOs based on microscopic images according to their similarity in appearance and classified tubular adenocarcinoma-derived PDOs into six types. Transcriptome analysis identified differential expression of genes related to cell adhesion in some of the morphological types. Genes involved in ribosome biogenesis were also differentially expressed and were most highly expressed in morphological types showing CRC stem cell properties. We identified an RNA polymerase I inhibitor, CX-5641, to be an upstream regulator of these type-specific gene sets. Notably, PDO types with increased expression of genes involved in ribosome biogenesis were resistant to CX-5461 treatment. Taken together, these results uncover the biological significance of the morphology of PDOs and provide novel indicators by which to categorize CRCs. Therefore, the AI-based classifier is a useful tool to support PDO-based cancer research.

Dynamic motions of ice-binding proteins in living Caenorhabditis elegans using diffracted X-ray blinking and tracking.

The dynamic properties of protein molecules are involved in the relationship between their structure and function. Time-resolved X-ray observation enables capturing the structures of biomolecules with picometre-scale precision. However, this technique has yet to be implemented in living animals. Here, we examined diffracted X-ray blinking (DXB) and diffracted X-ray tracking (DXT) to observe the dynamics of a protein located on intestinal cells in adult Caenorhabditis elegans. This in vivo tissue-specific DXB was examined at temperatures from 20 °C to -10 °C for a recombinant ice-binding protein from Antarctomyces psychrotrophicus (AnpIBP) connected with the cells through a transmembrane CD4 protein equipped with a glycine-serine linker. AnpIBP inhibits ice growth at subzero temperatures by binding to ice crystals. We found that the rotational motion of AnpIBP decreases at -10 °C. In contrast, the motion of the AnpIBP mutant, which has a defective ice-binding ability, did not decrease at -10 °C. The twisting and tilting motional speeds of AnpIBPs measured above 5 °C by DXT were always higher than those of the defective AnpIBP mutant. These results suggest that wild-type AnpIBP is highly mobile in solution, and it is halted at subzero temperatures through ice binding. DXB and DXT allow for exploring protein behaviour in live animals with subnano resolution precision.

Characterization of phalloidin-negative nuclear actin filaments in U2OS cells expressing cytoplasmic actin-EGFP.

Actin is a major structural component of the cytoskeleton in eukaryotic cells, including fungi, plants, and animals, and exists not only in the cytoplasm as cytoskeleton but also in the nucleus. Recently, we developed a novel actin probe, ß-actin-EGFP fusion protein, which exhibited similar monomeric to filamentous ratio as that of endogenous actin, in contrast to the widely used EGFP-ß-actin fusion protein that over-assembles in cells. Unexpectedly, this novel probe visualized an interconnected meshwork of slightly curved beam-like bundles of actin filaments in the nucleus of U2OS cells. These structures were not labeled with rhodamine phalloidin, Lifeact-EGFP or anti-actin antibodies. In addition, immunofluorescence staining and expression of cofilin-EGFP revealed that this nuclear actin structures contained cofilin. We named these actin filaments as phalloidin-negative intranuclear (PHANIN) actin filaments. Since PHANIN actin filaments could not be detected by general detection methods for actin filaments, we propose that PHANIN actin filaments are different from previously reported nuclear actin structures.

Live-cell imaging to analyze intracellular aggregation of recombinant IgG in CHO cells.

Recombinant immunoglobulin G (IgG) aggregates are formed during their production. However, the process underlying intracellular/extracellular aggregation in cell culture conditions is not well understood, and no effective method exists to assess IgG aggregates. Here, we establish an approach to detect intracellular aggregates using AF.2A1, a small artificial protein that binds to non-native IgG conformers and aggregates. Fluorescent-labeled AF.2A1 is prepared via conjugation and transfected into antibody-producing Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells. Micrographic images show intracellular IgG aggregates in CHO cells. The relative amount of intracellular aggregates (versus total intracellular IgG) differed depending on the type of additives used during cell culture. Interestingly, the relative amount of intracellular aggregates moderately correlates with that of in vitro extracellular IgG aggregates, suggesting they are secreted. This method will allow the investigation of antibody aggregation in cells, and may guide the production of therapeutic antibodies with high yield/quality.

The molecular and neural regulation of ultraviolet light phototaxis and its food-associated learning behavioral plasticity in C. elegans.

Ultraviolet light is quite toxic to all the animals and evoke the avoidance behavior of UV. The soil nematode Caenorhabditis elegans senses UV and is known to avoid UV by using four sensory neurons. However, it is not clear what signaling molecules act for UV avoidance in the neuronal pathway constituted of four sensory neurons. In addition, it is not clear whether this harmful environmental signal can be associated with other benefit signals such as food. In this study, by using newly developed assay system, we found that C. elegans can associate UV and food and changes behavioral strategy against harmful UV signal. This is the first indication that C. elegans shows associate learning with UV and food. Using our assay system, we also found that glutamate is used as a transmitter in both the UV avoidance and UV associate learning neural circuits. However, one sensory neuron showed a significant role for associative learning, compared to a complimentary role in four sensory neurons for direct associative learning, and different sets of glutamate receptors seemed to be acting for UV avoidance and UV associate learning. These findings suggest that a distinct neuronal network is used for UV learning compared to that for direct avoidance behavior of UV.

In Vivo Study of the Efficacy and Safety of 5-Aminolevulinic Radiodynamic Therapy for Glioblastoma Fractionated Radiotherapy.

To treat malignant glioma, standard fractionated radiotherapy (RT; 60 Gy/30 fractions over 6 weeks) was performed post-surgery in combination with temozolomide to improve overall survival. Malignant glioblastoma recurrence rate is extremely high, and most recurrent tumors originate from the excision cavity in the high-dose irradiation region. In our previous study, protoporphyrin IX physicochemically enhanced reactive oxygen species generation by ionizing radiation and combined treatment with 5-aminolevulinic acid (5-ALA) and ionizing radiation, while radiodynamic therapy (RDT) improved tumor growth suppression in vivo in a melanoma mouse model. We examined the effect of 5-ALA RDT on the standard fractionated RT protocol using U251MG- or U87MG-bearing mice. 5-ALA was orally administered at 60 or 120 mg/kg, 4 h prior to irradiation. In both models, combined treatment with 5-ALA slowed tumor progression and promoted regression compared to treatment with ionizing radiation alone. The standard fractionated RT protocol of 60 Gy in 30 fractions with oral administration of 120 and 240 mg/kg 5-ALA, the human equivalent dose of photodynamic diagnosis, revealed no significant increase in toxicity to normal skin or brain tissue compared to ionizing radiation alone. Thus, RDT is expected to enhance RT treatment of glioblastoma without severe toxicity under clinically feasible conditions.

Retrogradely transmitted α-synuclein is taken up by the endophilin-independent endocytosis in the C. elegans neural circuit.

α-Synuclein is a major component of Lewy bodies and Lewy neuritis which are hallmarks of Parkinson's disease, and is known to propagate from cell-to-cell in a prion-like manner. However, the exact mechanism of α-synuclein propagation in cells remains unclear. Despite the increasing number of studies and models of α-synuclein propagation, there is no direct evidence demonstrating whether the propagation is trans-synaptic or synaptic connection-independent, what the direction of propagation is, and what the regulators of α-synuclein propagation are. In this study, we generated a Caenorhabditis elegans model that can help monitoring the neuron-to-neuron propagation of α-synuclein using BiFC system. Using this model, we demonstrated that α-synuclein was propagated into neurons in both anterograde and retrograde manners, with retrograde propagation being dominant. Interestingly, we also found that endophilin, which is a protein required for classical clathrin-mediated endocytic machinery, was not involved in this retrograde propagation. Furthermore, we demonstrated that α-synuclein inhibits neuronal activity through voltage-gated calcium channels. Our findings suggest a possible mechanism for α-synuclein propagation via synapses through a novel uptake pathway.

Biallelic loss of OTUD7A causes severe muscular hypotonia, intellectual disability, and seizures.

The heterozygous deletion of 15q13.3 is a recurrently observed microdeletion syndrome associated with a relatively mild phenotype including learning disability and language impairment. In contrast, the homozygous deletion of 15q13.3 is extremely rare and is associated with a much severer phenotype that includes epileptic encephalopathy, profound intellectual disability, and hypotonia. Which of the genes within the deleted interval is responsible for the more severe features when biallelically deleted is currently unknown. Here, we report a patient with profound hypotonia, severe intellectual disability, and seizures who had biallelic loss-of-function variants in OTUD7A: a 15q13.3 deletion including the OTUD7A locus, and a frameshift OTUD7A variant c.1125del, p.(Glu375Aspfs*11). Unexpectedly, both aberrations occurred de novo. Our experiment using Caenorhabditis elegans showed that worms carrying a corresponding homozygous variant in the homolog OTUB-2 exhibited weakened muscle contraction suggestive of aberrant neuromuscular transmission. We concluded that the biallelic complete loss of OTUD7A in humans represents a presumably new autosomal recessive disorder characterized by profound hypotonia, severe intellectual disability, and seizures.

In Vivo Simultaneous Analysis of Gene Expression by Dual-Color Luciferases in Caenorhabditis elegans.

Both fluorescent and luminescent observation are widely used to examine real-time gene expression patterns in living organisms. Several fluuorescent and luminescent proteins with specific optical properties have been developed and applied for simultaneous, multi-color observation of more than two gene expression profiles. Compared to fluorescent proteins, however, the application of multi-color luminescent imaging in living organisms is still limited. In this study, we introduced two-color luciferases into the soil nematode C. elegans and performed simultaneous analysis of two gene expression profiles. Using a green-emitting luciferase Eluc (emerald luciferase) and red-emitting luciferase SLR (stable luciferase red), the expression patterns of two genes were simultaneously observed in single animals from embryonic to adult stages over its whole life span. In addition, dual gene activities were observed at the single embryo level, with the simultaneous observation of morphological changes. These are the first application of a two-color luciferase system into a whole animal and suggest that precise relationship of expression patterns of multiple genes of interest can be analyzed over the whole life of the animal, dependent on the changes in genetic and/or environmental conditions.

DNA Strand Break Properties of Protoporphyrin IX by X-Ray Irradiation against Melanoma.

Recent reports have suggested that 5-aminolevulinic acid (5-ALA), which is a precursor to protoporphyrin IX (PpIX), leads to selective accumulation of PpIX in tumor cells and acts as a radiation sensitizer in vitro and in vivo in mouse models of melanoma, glioma, and colon cancer. In this study, we investigated the effect of PpIX under X-ray irradiation through ROS generation and DNA damage. ROS generation by the interaction between PpIX and X-ray was evaluated by two kinds of probes, 3'-(p-aminophenyl) fluorescein (APF) for hydroxyl radical (•OH) detection and dihydroethidium (DHE) for superoxide (O2•-). •OH showed an increase, regardless of the dissolved oxygen. Meanwhile, the increase in O2•- was proportional to the dissolved oxygen. Strand breaks (SBs) of DNA molecule were evaluated by gel electrophoresis, and the enhancement of SBs was observed by PpIX treatment. We also studied the effect of PpIX for DNA damage in cells by X-ray irradiation using a B16 melanoma culture. X-ray irradiation induced γH2AX, DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) in the context of chromatin, and affected cell survival. Since PpIX can enhance ROS generation even in a hypoxic state and induce DNA damage, combined radiotherapy treatment with 5-ALA is expected to improve therapeutic efficacy for radioresistant tumors.

New Alzheimer's disease model mouse specialized for analyzing the function and toxicity of intraneuronal Amyloid ß oligomers.

Oligomers of intracellular amyloid ß protein (Aß) are strongly cytotoxic and play crucial roles in synaptic transmission and cognitive function in Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, there is currently no AD model mouse in which to specifically analyze the function of Aß oligomers only. We have now developed a novel AD model mouse, an Aß-GFP transgenic mouse (Aß-GFP Tg), that expresses the GFP-fused human Aß1-42 protein, which forms only Aß oligomers within neurons throughout their life. The fusion proteins are expressed mainly in the hippocampal CA1-CA2 region and cerebral cortex, and are not secreted extracellularly. The Aß-GFP Tg mice exhibit increased tau phosphorylation, altered spine morphology, decreased expressions of the GluN2B receptor and neuroligin in synaptic regions, attenuated hippocampal long-term potentiation, and impaired object recognition memory compared with non-Tg littermates. Interestingly, these dysfunctions have already appeared in 2-3-months-old animals. The Aß-GFP fusion protein is bioactive and highly toxic, and induces the similar synaptic dysfunctions as the naturally generated Aß oligomer derived from postmortem AD patient brains and synthetic Aß oligomers. Thus, Aß-GFP Tg mouse is a new tool specialized to analyze the function of Aß oligomers in vivo and to find subtle changes in synapses in early symptoms of AD.

Introducing a Gene Knockout Directly Into the Amastigote Stage of Trypanosoma cruzi Using the CRISPR/Cas9 System.

Trypanosoma cruzi is a pathogenic protozoan parasite that causes Chagas' disease mainly in Latin America. In order to identify a novel drug target against T. cruzi, it is important to validate the essentiality of the target gene in the mammalian stage of the parasite, the amastigote. Amastigotes of T. cruzi replicate inside the host cell; thus, it is difficult to conduct a knockout experiment without going through other developmental stages. Recently, our group reported a growth condition in which the amastigote can replicate axenically for up to 10 days without losing its amastigote-like properties. By using this temporal axenic amastigote culture, we successfully introduced gRNAs directly into the Cas9-expressing amastigote to cause gene knockouts and analyzed their phenotypes exclusively in the amastigote stage. In this report, we describe a detailed protocol to produce in vitro derived extracellular amastigotes, and to utilize the axenic culture in a CRISPR/Cas9-mediated knockout experiment. The growth phenotype of knockout amastigotes can be evaluated either by cell counts of the axenic culture, or by replication of intracellular amastigote after host cell invasion. This method bypasses the parasite stage differentiation normally involved in producing a transgenic or a knockout amastigote. Utilization of the temporal axenic amastigote culture has the potential to expand the experimental freedom of stage-specific studies in T. cruzi.

Expression of Ice-Binding Proteins in Caenorhabditis elegans Improves the Survival Rate upon Cold Shock and during Freezing.

Ice-binding proteins (IBPs) are capable of binding ice crystals and inhibiting their growth at freezing temperatures. IBPs are also thought to stabilize the cell membrane at non-freezing temperatures near 0 °C. These two effects have been assumed to reduce cold- and freezing-induced damage to cells and tissues. However, knowledge regarding the effects of IBP on the living animals is limited. Here, we characterized the relationship between the IBP effects and the physiological role by using the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. The expression of fish (NfeIBPs)- and fungus-derived IBPs (AnpIBPs and TisIBP8) in C. elegans improved its survival rate during exposure to 0 and -2 °C (cold shock) and -5 °C (freezing). The observed cold tolerance of C. elegans after cold shock is attributable to the stabilization of cell-membrane lipids with IBPs, and the freezing tolerance at -5 °C can be attributed to the inhibition of ice-crystal growth by the IBPs. Significantly, the survival rate of C. elegans at -5 °C was improved by expression of wild-type AnpIBP and maximized by that of TisIBP8, whereas it was lowered when a defective AnpIBP mutant was expressed. These results suggest that the ice-binding ability of IBP has a good correlation with the survival rate of C. elegans during freezing.

Utilization of proliferable extracellular amastigotes for transient gene expression, drug sensitivity assay, and CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene knockout in Trypanosoma cruzi.

Trypanosoma cruzi has three distinct life cycle stages; epimastigote, trypomastigote, and amastigote. Amastigote is the replication stage in host mammalian cells, hence this stage of parasite has clinical significance in drug development research. Presence of extracellular amastigotes (EA) and their infection capability have been known for some decades. Here, we demonstrate that EA can be utilized as an axenic culture to aid in stage-specific study of T. cruzi. Amastigote-like property of axenic amastigote can be sustained in LIT medium at 37°C at least for 1 week, judging from their morphology, amastigote-specific UTR-regulated GFP expression, and stage-specific expression of selected endogenous genes. Inhibitory effect of benznidazole and nifurtimox on axenic amastigotes was comparable to that on intracellular amastigotes. Exogenous nucleic acids can be transfected into EA via conventional electroporation, and selective marker could be utilized for enrichment of transfectants. We also demonstrate that CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene knockout can be performed in EA. Essentiality of the target gene can be evaluated by the growth capability of the knockout EA, either by continuation of axenic culturing or by host infection and following replication as intracellular amastigotes. By taking advantage of the accessibility and sturdiness of EA, we can potentially expand our experimental freedom in studying amastigote stage of T. cruzi.

Development of a motion-based cell-counting system for Trypanosoma parasite using a pattern recognition approach.

Automated cell counters that utilize still images of sample cells are widely used. However, they are not well suited to counting slender, aggregate-prone microorganisms such as Trypanosoma cruzi. Here, we developed a motion-based cell-counting system, using an image-recognition method based on a cubic higher-order local auto-correlation feature. The software successfully estimated the cell density of dispersed, aggregated, as well as fluorescent parasites by motion pattern recognition. Loss of parasites activeness due to drug treatment could also be detected as a reduction in apparent cell count, which potentially increases the sensitivity of drug screening assays. Moreover, the motion-based approach enabled estimation of the number of parasites in a co-culture with host mammalian cells, by disregarding the presence of the host cells as a static background.

Intestinal F-box protein regulates quick avoidance behavior of Caenorhabditis elegans to the pathogenic bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

In most animals, avoiding pathogenic bacteria is crucial for better health and a long life span. For this purpose, animals should be able to quickly sense the presence or uptake of pathogens. The intestine could be a candidate organ to induce escape behaviors; however, the intestinal signaling mechanism for acute regulation of neuronal activity is not well understood. Here, we show that adult Caenorhabditis elegans can respond to the pathogenic bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa within 30 min of exposure. This behavior was much faster than previously observed avoidance behaviors in response to P. aeruginosa. By genetic screening, we isolated a mutant defective in this quick avoidance behavior and found that the novel F-box protein FBXC-58 is involved. FBXC-58 is expressed in several tissues, but defective avoidance was rescued by expression of the protein in the intestine. Interestingly, we also found that some but not all mutants in the p38-MAPK and insulin-like signaling pathways, which function in the immune response to pathogens in the intestine, were defective in the quick avoidance behavior to P. aeruginosa. These results suggest that a novel signaling pathway in the intestine exists to regulate neuronal activity for a quick behavioral response.

A Simple Method for Visualization of Locus-Specific H4K20me1 Modifications in Living Caenorhabditis elegans Single Cells.

Recently, advances in next-generation sequencing technologies have enabled genome-wide analyses of epigenetic modifications; however, it remains difficult to analyze the states of histone modifications at a single-cell resolution in living multicellular organisms because of the heterogeneity within cellular populations. Here we describe a simple method to visualize histone modifications on the specific sequence of target locus at a single-cell resolution in living Caenorhabditis elegans, by combining the LacO/LacI system and a genetically-encoded H4K20me1-specific probe, "mintbody". We demonstrate that Venus-labeled mintbody and mTurquoise2-labeled LacI can co-localize on an artificial chromosome carrying both the target locus and LacO sequences, where H4K20me1 marks the target locus. We demonstrate that our visualization method can precisely detect H4K20me1 depositions on the her-1 gene sequences on the artificial chromosome, to which the dosage compensation complex binds to regulate sex determination. The degree of H4K20me1 deposition on the her-1 sequences on the artificial chromosome correlated strongly with sex, suggesting that, using the artificial chromosome, this method can reflect context-dependent changes of H4K20me1 on endogenous genomes. Furthermore, we demonstrate live imaging of H4K20me1 depositions on the artificial chromosome. Combined with ChIP assays, this mintbody-LacO/LacI visualization method will enable analysis of developmental and context-dependent alterations of locus-specific histone modifications in specific cells and elucidation of the underlying molecular mechanisms.

Regulation of chromatin states and gene expression during HSN neuronal maturation is mediated by EOR-1/PLZF, MAU-2/cohesin loader, and SWI/SNF complex.

Newborn neurons mature by distinct and sequential steps through the timely induction of specific gene expression programs in concert with epigenetic changes. However, it has been difficult to investigate the relationship between gene expression and epigenetic changes at a single-cell resolution during neuronal maturation. In this study, we investigated the maturation of hermaphrodite-specific neurons (HSNs) in C. elegans, which provided the link between chromatin dynamics, gene expression, and the degree of neuronal maturation at a single-cell resolution. Our results demonstrated that chromatin composition in the promoter region of several genes acting for neuronal terminal maturation was modulated at an early developmental stage, and is dependent on the function of the transcription factor EOR-1/PLZF and the cohesin loader MAU-2/MAU2. Components of the SWI/SNF chromatin remodeling complex were also required for the proper expression of terminal maturation genes. Epistasis analyses suggested that eor-1 functions with mau-2 and swsn-1 in the same genetic pathway to regulate the maturation of HSNs. Collectively, our study provides a novel approach to analyze neuronal maturation and proposes that predefined epigenetic modifications, mediated by EOR-1, MAU-2, and the SWI/SNF complex, are important for the preparation of future gene expression programs in neuronal terminal maturation.

Anticancer activity of the supercritical extract of Brazilian green propolis and its active component, artepillin C: Bioinformatics and experimental analyses of its mechanisms of action.

Propolis, a resinous substance collected by honeybees by mixing their saliva with plant sources, including tree bark and leaves and then mixed with secreted beeswax, possesses a variety of bioactivities. Whereas caffeic acid phenethyl ester (CAPE) has been recognized as a major bioactive ingredient in New Zealand propolis, Brazilian green propolis, on the other hand, possesses artepillin C (ARC). In this study, we report that, similar to CAPE, ARC docks into and abrogates mortalin-p53 complexes, causing the activation of p53 and the growth arrest of cancer cells. Cell viability assays using ARC and green propolis-supercritical extract (GPSE) revealed higher cytotoxicity in the latter, supported by nuclear translocation and the activation of p53. Furthermore, in vivo tumor suppression assays using nude mice, we found that GPSE and its conjugate with γ cyclodextrin (γCD) possessed more potent anticancer activity than purified ARC. GPSE­Î³CD may thus be recommended as a natural, effective and economic anticancer amalgam.