ABSTRACT
Atherosclerosis is a widespread and hazardous disease characterized by the formation of arterial plaques mostly composed of fat, cholesterol, and calcium ions. The direct solubilization of cholesterol represents a promising, atheroprotective strategy to subside lipid blood levels and reverse atherosclerosis. This study deals with the in-depth analysis of polymer-mediated cholesterol dissolution inside living human cells. To this end, a recently described multifunctional block-polymer is labeled with Rhodamine B (RhoB) to investigate its interaction with cells via fluorescence microscopy. This gives insight into the cellular internalization process of the polymer, which appears to be clathrin- and caveolae/raft-dependent endocytosis. In cell single particle tracking reveals an active transport of RhoB polymer including structures. Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) measurements of cells treated with a fluorophore-tagged cholesterol derivative and the RhoB polymer indicates the uptake of cholesterol by the polymeric particles. Hence, these results present a first step toward possible applications of cholesterol-absorbing polymers for treating atherosclerosis.
Subject(s)
Cholesterol/metabolism , Endocytosis , Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer , Rhodamines/chemistry , Biological Transport/physiology , HEK293 Cells , Hep G2 Cells , Humans , Microscopy, FluorescenceABSTRACT
Abundant post-translational modification through methylation alters the function, stability, and/or localization of a protein. Malfunctions in post-translational modification are associated with severe diseases. To unravel protein methylation sites and their biological functions, chemical methylation reporters have been developed. However, until now, their usage was limited to cell lysates. Herein, we present the first generally applicable approach for imaging methylation of individual proteins in human cells, which is based on a combination of chemical reporter strategies, bioorthogonal ligation reactions, and FRET detected by means of fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy. Through this approach, methylation of histone 4 and the non-histone proteins tumor suppressor p53, kinase Akt1, and transcription factor Foxo1 in two human cell lines has been successfully imaged. To further demonstrate its potential, the localization-dependent methylation state of Foxo1 in the cellular context has been visualized.
Subject(s)
Forkhead Box Protein O1/metabolism , Histones/metabolism , Microscopy, Confocal/methods , Microscopy, Fluorescence/methods , Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-akt/metabolism , Tumor Suppressor Protein p53/metabolism , Alkynes/chemistry , Alkynes/metabolism , Azides/chemistry , Carbocyanines/chemistry , Fluorescent Dyes/chemistry , Forkhead Box Protein O1/chemistry , HEK293 Cells , HeLa Cells , Histones/chemistry , Humans , Methylation , Methyltransferases/metabolism , Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-akt/chemistry , Selenomethionine/analogs & derivatives , Selenomethionine/chemistry , Selenomethionine/metabolism , Tumor Suppressor Protein p53/chemistryABSTRACT
Posttranslational protein glycosylation is conserved in all kingdoms of life and implicated in the regulation of protein structure, function, and localization. The visualization of glycosylation states of designated proteins within living cells is of great importance for unraveling the biological roles of intracellular protein glycosylation. Our generally applicable approach is based on the incorporation of a glucosamine analog, Ac4GlcNCyoc, into the cellular glycome via metabolic engineering. Ac4GlcNCyoc can be labeled in a second step via inverse-electron-demand Diels-Alder chemistry with fluorophores inside living cells. Additionally, target proteins can be expressed as enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP)-fusion proteins. To assess the proximity of the donor EGFP and the glycan-anchored acceptor fluorophore, Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) is employed and read out with high contrast by fluorescence lifetime imaging (FLIM) microscopy. In this chapter, we present a detailed description of methods required to perform protein-specific imaging of glycosylation inside living cells. These include the complete synthesis of Ac4GlcNCyoc, immunoprecipitation of EGFP-fusion proteins to examine the Ac4GlcNCyoc modification state, and a complete section on basics, performance, as well as data analysis for FLIM-FRET microscopy. We also provide useful notes necessary for reproducibility and point out strengths and limitations of the approach.
Subject(s)
Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer/methods , Glycoproteins/metabolism , Intravital Microscopy/methods , Metabolic Engineering/methods , Molecular Imaging/methods , Acetylglucosamine/analogs & derivatives , Acetylglucosamine/chemical synthesis , Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer/instrumentation , Fluorescent Dyes/chemistry , Glycoproteins/chemistry , Glycosylation , Green Fluorescent Proteins/chemistry , Intravital Microscopy/instrumentation , Metabolic Engineering/instrumentation , Microscopy, Fluorescence/instrumentation , Microscopy, Fluorescence/methods , Molecular Imaging/instrumentation , Reproducibility of ResultsABSTRACT
Protein glycosylation is a ubiquitous post-translational modification that is involved in the regulation of many aspects of protein function. In order to uncover the biological roles of this modification, imaging the glycosylation state of specific proteins within living cells would be of fundamental importance. To date, however, this has not been achieved. Herein, we demonstrate protein-specific detection of the glycosylation of the intracellular proteins OGT, Foxo1, p53, and Akt1 in living cells. Our generally applicable approach relies on Diels-Alder chemistry to fluorescently label intracellular carbohydrates through metabolic engineering. The target proteins are tagged with enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP). Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) between the EGFP and the glycan-anchored fluorophore is detected with high contrast even in presence of a large excess of acceptor fluorophores by fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM).
Subject(s)
Green Fluorescent Proteins/metabolism , Cell Survival , Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer , Glycosylation , Green Fluorescent Proteins/analysis , Green Fluorescent Proteins/chemistry , HEK293 Cells , Humans , Metabolic Engineering , Microscopy, Fluorescence , Molecular Structure , Substrate SpecificityABSTRACT
Polyglutamine (polyQ) sequences are found in a variety of proteins with normal function. However, their repeat expansion is associated with a number of neurodegenerative diseases, also called polyQ diseases. The length of the polyQ sequence, varying in the number of consecutive glutamines among different diseases, is critical for inducing fibril formation. We performed a systematic spectroscopic study to analyze the conformation of polyQ model peptides in dependence of the glutamine sequence lengths (K2QnK2 with n=10, 20, 30). Complementary FTIR- and CD-spectra were measured in a wide concentration range and repeated heating and cooling cycles revealed the thermal stability of formed ß-sheets. The shortest glutamine sequence K2Q10K2 shows solely random structure for concentrations up to 10 mg/ml. By increasing the peptide length to K2Q20K2, a significant fraction of ß-sheet is observed even at low concentrations of 0.01 mg/ml. The higher the concentration, the more the structural composition is dominated by the intermolecular ß-sheet. The formation of highly thermostable ß-sheet is much more pronounced in K2Q30K2. K2Q30K2 precipitates at a concentration of 0.3 mg/ml. Our spectroscopic study shows that the aggregation tendency is enhanced with increased glutamine repeat expansion and that the concentration plays another critical factor in the ß-sheet formation.
