Automated sulfur-[18F]fluoride exchange radiolabelling of a prostate specific membrane antigen (PSMA) targeted ligand using the GE FASTlab™ cassette-based platform.

Sulfur-[18F]fluoride exchange radiochemistry is a rapid and convenient method for incorporating fluorine-18 into biologically active molecules. We report a fully automated radiolabelling procedure for the synthesis of a [18F]SO3F-bearing prostate specific membrane antigen (PSMA) targeted ligand ([18F]5) using the GE FASTLab™ cassette-based platform in a 25.0 ± 2.6% radiochemical yield (decay corrected). Uptake in vitro and in vivo correlated with PSMA expression, and the radioligand exhibited favourable biodistribution and pharmacokinetic profiles.

In vivo validation of 68Ga-labeled AMD3100 conjugates for PET imaging of CXCR4.

INTRODUCTION: The chemokine receptor CXCR4 has been shown to be over-expressed in multiple types of cancer and is usually associated with aggressive phenotypes and poor prognosis. Successfully targeting and imaging the expression level of this receptor in tumours could inform treatment selection and facilitate patient stratification. METHODS: Known conjugates of AMD3100 that are specific to CXCR4 have been radiolabelled with gallium-68 and evaluated in naïve and tumour-bearing mice. Tumour uptake of the radiotracers was compared to the known CXCR4-specific PET imaging agent, [68Ga]Pentixafor. RESULTS: Ex vivo biodistribution in naïve animals showed CXCR4-mediated uptake in the liver with both radiotracers, confirmed by blocking experiments with the high affinity CXCR4 antagonist Cu2CB-Bicyclam (IC50 = 3 nM). PET/CT imaging studies revealed one tracer to have a higher accumulation in the tumour (SUVMean of 0.89 ± 0.14 vs 0.32 ± 0.11). CXCR4-specificity of the best performing tracer was confirmed by administration of a blocking dose of Cu2CB-Bicyclam, showing a 3- and 6-fold decrease in tumour and liver uptake, respectively. CONCLUSION AND ADVANCES IN KNOWLEDGE: This initial study offers some interesting insights on the impact of some structural features on the pharmacokinetics and metabolic stability of the radiotracer. Additionally, as Pentixafor only binds to human CXCR4, the development of CXCR4-targeted imaging agents that bind to the receptor across different species could significantly help with preclinical evaluation of new CXCR4-specific therapeutics.

Multivalency in CXCR4 chemokine receptor targeted iron oxide nanoparticles.

The CXCR4 chemokine receptor is an important biomolecular target in cancer diagnostics and therapeutics. In a new multivalent approach, iron oxide nanoparticles were conjugated with multiple binding units of a low affinity azamacrocylic CXCR4 antagonist. The silica coated nanostructure has good suspension stability, a mode size of 72 nm and high affinity for CXCR4, showing >98% inhibition of anti-CXCR4 mAb binding in a receptor binding competition assay on Jurkat cells.

Cell proliferation detected using [18F]FLT PET/CT as an early marker of abdominal aortic aneurysm.

BACKGROUND: Abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) is a focal aortic dilatation progressing towards rupture. Non-invasive AAA-associated cell proliferation biomarkers are not yet established. We investigated the feasibility of the cell proliferation radiotracer, fluorine-18-fluorothymidine ([18F]FLT) with positron emission tomography/computed tomography (PET/CT) in a progressive pre-clinical AAA model (angiotensin II, AngII infusion). METHODS AND RESULTS: Fourteen-week-old apolipoprotein E-knockout (ApoE-/-) mice received saline or AngII via osmotic mini-pumps for 14 (n = 7 and 5, respectively) or 28 (n = 3 and 4, respectively) days and underwent 90-minute dynamic [18F]FLT PET/CT. Organs were harvested from independent cohorts for gamma counting, ultrasound scanning, and western blotting. [18F]FLT uptake was significantly greater in 14- (n = 5) and 28-day (n = 3) AAA than in saline control aortae (n = 5) (P < 0.001), which reduced between days 14 and 28. Whole-organ gamma counting confirmed greater [18F]FLT uptake in 14-day AAA (n = 9) compared to saline-infused aortae (n = 4) (P < 0.05), correlating positively with aortic volume (r = 0.71, P < 0.01). Fourteen-day AAA tissue showed increased expression of thymidine kinase-1, equilibrative nucleoside transporter (ENT)-1, ENT-2, concentrative nucleoside transporter (CNT)-1, and CNT-3 than 28-day AAA and saline control tissues (n = 3 each) (all P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: [18F]FLT uptake is increased during the active growth phase of the AAA model compared to saline control mice and late-stage AAA.

64Cu PET Imaging of the CXCR4 Chemokine Receptor Using a Cross-Bridged Cyclam Bis-Tetraazamacrocyclic Antagonist.

Expression of the chemokine receptor chemokine C-X-C motif receptor 4 (CXCR4) plays an important role in cancer metastasis, in autoimmune diseases, and during stem cell-based repair processes after stroke and myocardial infarction. Previously reported PET imaging agents targeting CXCR4 suffer from either high nonspecific uptake or bind only to the human form of the receptor. The objective of this study was to develop a high-stability 64Cu-labeled small-molecule PET agent for imaging both human and murine CXCR4 chemokine receptors. Methods: Synthesis, radiochemistry, stability and radioligand binding assays were performed for the novel tracer 64Cu-CuCB-bicyclam. In vivo dynamic PET studies were performed on mice bearing U87 (CXCR4 low-expressing) and U87.CXCR4 (human-CXCR4 high-expressing) tumors. Biodistribution and receptor blocking studies were performed on CD1-IGS immunocompetent mice. CXCR4 expression on tumor and liver disaggregates was confirmed using a combination of immunohistochemistry, quantitative polymerase chain reaction, and Western blot. Results:64Cu-CuCB-bicyclam has a high affinity for both the human and the murine variants of the CXCR4 receptor (half-maximal inhibitory concentration, 8 nM [human]/2 nM [murine]) and can be obtained from the parent chelator that has low affinity. In vitro and in vivo studies demonstrate specific uptake in CXCR4-expressing cells that can be blocked by more than 90% using a higher-affinity antagonist, with limited uptake in non-CXCR4-expressing organs and high in vivo stability. The tracer was also able to selectively displace the CXCR4 antagonists AMD3100 and AMD3465 from the liver. Conclusion: The tetraazamacrocyclic small molecule 64Cu-CuCB-bicyclam has been shown to be an imaging agent for the CXCR4 receptor that is likely to be applicable across a range of species. It has high affinity and stability and is suitable for preclinical research in immunocompetent murine models.

Towards dual SPECT/optical bioimaging with a mitochondrial targeting, 99mTc(i) radiolabelled 1,8-naphthalimide conjugate.

A series of six different 1,8-naphthalimide conjugated dipicolylamine ligands (L1-6) have been synthesised and characterised. The ligands possess a range of different linker units between the napthalimide fluorophore and dipcolylamine chelator which allow the overall lipophilicity to be tuned. A corresponding series of Re(i) complexes have been synthesised of the form fac-[Re(CO)3(L1-6)]BF4. The absorption and luminescence properties of the ligands and Re(i) complexes were dominated by the intramolecular charge transfer character of the substituted fluorophore (typically absorption ca. 425 nm and emission ca. 520 nm). Photophysical assessments show that some of the variants are moderately bright. Radiolabelling experiments using a water soluble ligand variant (L5) were successfully undertaken and optimised with fac-[99mTc(CO)3(H2O)3]+. Confocal fluorescence microscopy showed that fac-[Re(CO)3(L5)]+ localises in the mitochondria of MCF-7 cells. SPECT/CT imaging experiments on naïve mice showed that fac-[99mTc(CO)3(L5)]+ has a relatively high stability in vivo but did not show any cardiac uptake, demonstrating rapid clearance, predominantly via the biliary system along with a moderate amount cleared renally.

Structurally optimised BODIPY derivatives for imaging of mitochondrial dysfunction in cancer and heart cells.

The structural features required for mitochondrial uptake of BODIPY-based optical imaging agents have been explored. The first derivatives of this class of dyes shown to have mitochondrial membrane potential-dependent uptake in both cancer and heart cells have been developed.

Mono- and Bis-Alkylation of Glyoxal-Bridged Tetraazamacrocycles Using Mechanochemistry.

Glyoxal-bridged bisaminal tetraazamacrocyclic derivatives of 1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane (cyclen) and 1,4,8,11-tetraazacyclotetradecane (cyclam) can be N-functionalized to incorporate coordinating groups or for conjugation to biomolecules. Herein, we present an improved N-functionalization methodology using mechanochemistry which reduces reaction times in comparison with conventional synthetic routes. A range of six alkyl halides were reacted with cyclen and cyclam bisaminal derivatives in various ratios to form mono- and bis-functionalized quaternary ammonium salts. Cross-bridged cyclam, a key intermediate for CB-TE2A, a commonly used chelator in positron emission tomography medical imaging with (64)Cu, has been synthesized using nonconventional synthetic methodologies (grinding and microwave heating) with intermediates characterized by 2D NMR and single crystal XRD. The overall synthesis time of CB-TE2A from cyclam could be shortened to 5 days from the 35 days required for the conventional synthesis.

Development of PDT/PET Theranostics: Synthesis and Biological Evaluation of an (18)F-Radiolabeled Water-Soluble Porphyrin.

Synthesis of the first water-soluble porphyrin radiolabeled with fluorine-18 is described: a new molecular theranostic agent which integrates the therapeutic selectivity of photodynamic therapy (PDT) with the imaging efficacy of positron emission tomography (PET). Generation of the theranostic was carried out through the conjugation of a cationic water-soluble porphyrin bearing an azide functionality to a fluorine-18 radiolabeled prosthetic bearing an alkyne functionality through click conjugation, with excellent yields obtained in both cold and hot synthesis. Biological evaluation of the synthesized structures shows the first example of an (18)F-radiolabeled porphyrin retaining photocytotoxicity following radiolabeling and demonstrable conjugate uptake and potential application as a radiotracer in vivo. The promising results gained from biological evaluation demonstrate the potential of this structure as a clinically relevant theranostic agent, offering exciting possibilities for the simultaneous imaging and photodynamic treatment of tumors.

Chelator free gallium-68 radiolabelling of silica coated iron oxide nanorods via surface interactions.

The commercial availability of combined magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)/positron emission tomography (PET) scanners for clinical use has increased demand for easily prepared agents which offer signal or contrast in both modalities. Herein we describe a new class of silica coated iron-oxide nanorods (NRs) coated with polyethylene glycol (PEG) and/or a tetraazamacrocyclic chelator (DO3A). Studies of the coated NRs validate their composition and confirm their properties as in vivo T2 MRI contrast agents. Radiolabelling studies with the positron emitting radioisotope gallium-68 (t1/2 = 68 min) demonstrate that, in the presence of the silica coating, the macrocyclic chelator was not required for preparation of highly stable radiometal-NR constructs. In vivo PET-CT and MR imaging studies show the expected high liver uptake of gallium-68 radiolabelled nanorods with no significant release of gallium-68 metal ions, validating our innovation to provide a novel simple method for labelling of iron oxide NRs with a radiometal in the absence of a chelating unit that can be used for high sensitivity liver imaging.

Final step gallium-68 radiolabelling of silica-coated iron oxide nanorods as potential PET/MR multimodal imaging agents.

The investigation of iron oxide-based positron emission tomography/magnetic resonance (PET/MR) multimodal imaging agents is an expanding field in which a variety of nanoparticle sizes, shapes, surface coatings and radioisotopes are open for exploration. This study develops iron oxide nanorods which are coated with various mixtures of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) and macrocyclic ligand (DO3A) via the formation of a silica layer on the surface. Gallium-68 radiolabelling of the nanorods was carried out in high radiochemical yields (RCY) and their stability in human serum was demonstrated for all constructs, even in the absence of the macrocyclic chelating unit. Further studies were carried out in an attempt to determine the appropriate amount of PEG coating to give optimal properties for future in vivo studies.

18F-barbiturates are PET tracers with diagnostic potential in Alzheimer's disease.

Three fluoro-barbiturates were synthesised, showing in vivo sedative efficacy. One of them, [(18)F], was synthesised in radiofluorinated form. PET/CT Imaging with [(18)F] identified ß-amyloid over-expressing transgenic mice (ßA mice) compared to wild type and tau lines. The fluorescent barbiturate 9 was able to label ßA plaques in brain sections of ßA mice, and co-localise with a fluorescent Zn(II) indicator.

Enhancement of the cytotoxic potential of the mixed EGFR and DNA-targeting 'combi-molecule' ZRBA1 against human solid tumour cells by a bis-quinazoline-based drug design approach.

ZRBA1 is a quinazoline-based molecule termed 'combi-molecule' designed to block the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and further degrade to FD105, an EGFR inhibitor plus a DNA-alkylating agent. To augment the potency of ZRBA1, we designed JDE52, a bistriazene that, following degradation, was 'programmed' to yield higher concentrations of the free inhibitor FD105 and a more cytotoxic bifunctional DNA-damaging species. The results indicated that JDE52 was capable of inducing significant blockade of EGFR phosphorylation, DNA strand breaks and interstrand cross-links in human cells. The fluorescent property of FD105, the secondary inhibitor that both JDE52 and ZRBA1 are capable of releasing, has permitted the analysis of its levels in tumour cells by ultraviolet flow cytometry. It was found that JDE52 was indeed capable of significantly releasing higher levels of fluorescence (P<0.05) in human tumour cells when compared with ZRBA1. Apoptosis was triggered by JDE52 at a faster rate than ZRBA1 and led to higher levels of cell killing. The results in toto suggest that the superior potency of JDE52, when compared with ZRBA1, may be imputed to mechanisms associated with the generation of higher intracellular concentrations of FD105 and to the induction of DNA cross-links. These combined mechanisms (blockade of EGFR-tyrosine kinase and induction of cross-links) contributed to an accelerated rate of apoptosis by JDE52. This study conclusively demonstrated that designing molecules as prodrugs of high levels of quinazoline inhibitors of EGFR and bifunctional DNA cross-linking species is a valid strategy to enhance the potency of mixed EGFR-DNA-targeting combi-molecules.

"Combi-targeting" mitozolomide: conferring novel signaling inhibitory properties to an abandoned DNA alkylating agent in the treatment of advanced prostate cancer.

PURPOSE: At the preclinical stage, mitozolomide (MTZ) showed exciting preclinical activity but failed later in clinical trial due to toxic side effects. We surmised that by targeting MTZ to epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), we may not only alter its toxicity profile, but also enhance its potency in EGFR-overexpressing tumors. To test this hypothesis, we designed JDF12, studied its mechanism of action in human prostate cancer (PCa) cells and determined its potency in vivo. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: To analyze its mixed EGFR-DNA targeting potential, we performed an enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and western blotting analysis of EGFR phosphorylation in cells stimulated with EGF. DNA damage was analyzed using the comet assay, and apoptosis quantitated by annexin V binding assay. Growth inhibition in vitro was determined by the sulforhodamine B (SRB) assay and in vivo efficacy analyzed in male CD-1 nude mice. RESULTS: The results showed that: Under physiological conditions, JDF12 was hydrolyzed to JDF04R and both agents were capable of inhibiting isolated EGFR tyrosine kinase (TK) and EGFR phosphorylation in EGF-stimulated cells. JDF12 significantly damaged DNA, induced apoptosis in DU145 cells and was up to 2-10-fold more potent than equieffective combinations of MTZ and JDF04R or Iressa in a panel that also included LNCaP and its EGFR and ErbB2 transfectants. In vivo, it induced significant antitumor activity in a DU145 xenograft model. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that the superior cytotoxicity of JDF12 when compared with MTZ and JDF04R may be imputed to its potent EGFR-DNA targeting properties and confirm the ability of this novel strategy to confer EGFR targeting properties to a classical alkylator.

Fluorinase mediated chemoenzymatic synthesis of [(18)F]-fluoroacetate.

A novel preparation of sodium [(18)F]-fluoroacetate is described where 5'-[(18)F]-fluoro-5'-deoxyadenosine is generated by a fluorinase catalysed reaction of S-adenosyl-l-methionine (SAM) with no carrier added [(18)F]-fluoride and then oxidation to [(18)F]-fluoroacetate by a Kuhn-Roth oxidative degradation.

An enzymatic route to 5-deoxy-5-[18F]fluoro-D-ribose, a [18F]-fluorinated sugar for PET imaging.

An efficient two-step, one-pot, biotransformation involving the fluorinase enzyme is described for the synthesis of 5-deoxy-5-[(18)F]fluororibose, a novel [(18)F]-fluorinated sugar suitable for positron emission tomography (PET) applications.

The combi-targeting concept: in vitro and in vivo fragmentation of a stable combi-nitrosourea engineered to interact with the epidermal growth factor receptor while remaining DNA reactive.

PURPOSE: JDA58 (NSC 741282), a "combi-molecule" optimized in the context of the "combi-targeting concept," is a nitrosourea moiety tethered to an anilinoquinazoline. Here, we sought to show its binary epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR)/DNA targeting property and to study its fragmentation in vitro and in vivo. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: The fragmentation of JDA58 was detected in cells in vitro and in vivo by fluorescence microscopy and tandem mass spectrometry. EGFR phosphorylation and DNA damage were determined by Western blotting and comet assay, respectively. Tumor data were examined for statistical significance using the Student's t test. RESULTS: JDA58 inhibited EGFR tyrosine kinase (IC(50), 0.2 micromol/L) and blocked EGFR phosphorylation in human DU145 prostate cancer cells. It induced significant levels of DNA damage in DU145 cells in vitro or in vivo and showed potent antiproliferative activity both in vitro and in a DU145 xenograft model. In cell-free medium, JDA58 was hydrolyzed to JDA35, a fluorescent amine that could be observed in tumor cells both in vitro and in vivo. In tumor cells in vitro or in vivo, or in plasma collected from mice, the denitrosated species JDA41 was the predominant metabolite. However, mass spectrometric analysis revealed detectable levels of the hydrolytic product JDA35 in tumor cells both in vitro and in vivo. CONCLUSIONS: The results in toto suggest that growth inhibition in vitro and in vivo may be sustained by the intact combi-molecule plus JDA35 plus JDA41, three inhibitors of EGFR, and the concomitantly released DNA-damaging species. This leads to a model wherein a single molecule carries a complex multitargeted-multidrug combination.

Type II combi-molecules: design and binary targeting properties of the novel triazolinium-containing molecules JDD36 and JDE05.

We recently designed molecules termed "type II combi-molecules" to block the epidermal growth factor receptor and to damage DNA without the requirement for hydrolytic cleavage. Here, we studied two such combi-molecules (JDD36 and JDE05), containing a novel quinazoline-linked chloroethyltriazolinium system. The epidermal growth factor receptor-targeting potential of these novel structures was studied by ELISA for isolated epidermal growth factor receptor and by Western blotting for whole-cell assays. DNA damage was analyzed using the single-cell microelectrophoresis comet assay. Antiproliferative effects were determined by the sulforhodamine B assay. JDD36 showed an IC50 of 0.6 micromol/l in the ELISA for epidermal growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase, a dose-dependent inhibition of epidermal growth factor receptor phosphorylation and significant levels of DNA damage in the human DU145 prostate cancer cell line. JDD36 was an overall 2- to 15-fold stronger antiproliferative agent than JDE05 that showed potent epidermal growth factor receptor inhibitory activity (IC50 epidermal growth factor receptor, 0.035 micromol/l) but weak DNA-damaging potential. In a panel of LNCaP erbB transfectants, in contrast to JDE05, JDD36 showed remarkable and selective potency against the LNCaPerbB2 transfectant. The results in toto suggest that the overall superior potency of JDD36 when compared with JDE05 may be imputed to its balanced binary epidermal growth factor receptor-DNA-targeting properties that may induce a tandem blockade of epidermal growth factor receptor-mediated mitogenic signaling while depleting alternative survival mechanism by damaging DNA.

The combi-targeting concept: synthesis of stable nitrosoureas designed to inhibit the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR).

According to the "combi-targeting" concept, the EGFR tyrosine kinase (TK) inhibitory potency of compounds termed "combi-molecules" is critical for selective growth inhibition of tumor cells with disordered expression of EGFR or its closest family member erbB2. Here we report on the optimization of the EGFR TK inhibitory potency of the combi-molecules of the nitrosourea class by comparison with their aminoquinazoline and ureidoquinazoline precursors. This led to the discovery of a new structural parameter that influences their EGFR TK inhibitory potency, i.e., the torsion angle between the plane of the quinazoline ring and the ureido or the nitrosoureido moiety of the synthesized drugs. Compounds (3'-Cl and Br series) with small angles (0.5-3 degrees ) were generally stronger EGFR TK inhibitors than those with large angles (18-21 degrees ). This was further corroborated by ligand-receptor van der Waals interaction calculations that showed significant binding hindrance imposed by large torsion angles in the narrow ATP cleft of EGFR. Selective antiproliferative studies in a pair of mouse fibroblast NIH3T3 cells, one of which NIH3T3/neu being transfected with the erbB2 oncogene, showed that IC(50) values for inhibition of EGFR TK could be good predictors of their selective potency against the serum-stimulated growth of the erbB2-tranfected cell line (Pearson r = 0.8). On the basis of stability (t(1/2)), EGFR TK inhibitory potency (IC(50)), and selective erbB2 targeting, compound 23, a stable nitrosourea, was considered to have the structural requirements for further development.