Novel data interpretation method for DIII-D divertor retarding field energy analyzer with 3-D particle-in-cell simulations.

A novel data interpretation process that utilizes comprehensive particle-in-cell (PIC) simulations is developed for the new retarding field energy analyzer (RFEA) currently being constructed at DIII-D for the lower divertor using the Divertor Material Evaluation System. This probe is expected to survive a heat load of up to 100 MW/m2 for up to 5 s and reliably measure the main ion temperature (Ti) on the divertor target ranging from 10 to 200 eV. These extreme conditions posed significant engineering limitations on the probe geometry, thus extensive validation work has been performed. The conventional fitting method for the RFEA I-V characteristics is based on a simplified 1-D model without considering the ion space charge inside the probe cavity and may not be sufficient for probes designed for the DIII-D divertor environment. In this article, a more realistic description of the particle propagation process within the RFEA cavity is achieved by including both 3-D geometric effects and ion space charge in the PIC simulations, and the capability to reconstruct the ion energy distribution functions is demonstrated with reasonable consistency.

Measurements of multiple heat flux components at the divertor target by using surface eroding thermocouples (invited).

The Surface Eroding Thermocouple (SETC) is a robust diagnostic utilized in DIII-D to provide fast, edge-localized modes (ELMs) resolved heat flux measurements, in particular in geometric regions that are too shadowed for traditional infrared thermography. In order to further investigate the power dissipation in the divertor region, a combination of flush-mounted and recessed SETCs was developed to assess the effect on surface heating from non-charged particles at the divertor target. Utilizing the Divertor Materials Evaluation System sample exposure platform, the first demonstration of the feasibility of using this new method to distinguish between the heat flux from charged particles and that from neutrals and radiative heating was achieved. This paper details the process of using the combination of flush SETCs and recessed SETCs to measure the multiple heat flux components at the divertor target and further discusses how to determine two important ratios, α (ratio of heat flux from charged particles deposit on recessed SETC to that deposit on flush SETC) and ß (ratio of heat flux from non-charged particles deposit on recessed SETC to that deposit on flush SETC), in the estimation of the heat flux from non-charged particle sources. Using a time dependent ratio α, it was found that ∼50% of the total incident heat flux is attributable to the non-charged particles in the fully detached open divertor in DIII-D. Finally, the new application of similar SETC diagnostics in the Small Angle Slot divertor with a V-like configuration and partial tungsten coated surface (SAS-VW) is also introduced.

A simple vacuum suitcase for enabling plasma facing component characterization in fusion devices.

We have demonstrated a vacuum suitcase to transport samples in vacuo to a surface analysis station for characterization of tokamak plasma facing components (PFCs). This technique enables surface analysis at powerful, dedicated stations that are not encumbered by design constraints imposed on them by a tokamak. The vacuum suitcase is an alternative solution to characterizing PFCs using diagnostics that are designed and built around a tokamak. The vacuum suitcase, called the Sample Exposure Probe (SEP), features mobile ultra-high vacuum pumping. Active pumping under high vacuum enables sample transfer between the Lithium Tokamak eXperiment-ß (LTX-ß) and a high resolution X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) system that is situated close by. A thermocouple inserted in the back of the sample head measures heat flux from the plasma during exposure, and together with a button heater, allows the sample to match the LTX-ß PFCs in high temperature operations. As vacuum conditions are better during transfer and analysis than in the tokamak, less contamination is introduced to the samples. XPS scans on a dedicated analysis station enable peak identification due to higher resolution and signal to noise ratio. A similar probe could be implemented for other fusion devices. The SEP is the first vacuum suitcase implementation for fusion applications that incorporates active pumping.

Utilization of outer-midplane collector probes with isotopically enriched tungsten tracer particles for impurity transport studies in the scrape-off layer of DIII-D (invited).

Triplet sets of replaceable graphite rod collector probes (CPs), each with collection surfaces on opposing faces and oriented normal to the magnetic field, were inserted at the outboard mid-plane of DIII-D to study divertor tungsten (W) transport in the Scrape-Off Layer (SOL). Each CP collects particles along field lines with different parallel sampling lengths (determined by the rod diameters and SOL transport) giving radial profiles from the main wall inward to R-R sep ∼ 6 cm. The CPs were deployed in a first-of-a-kind experiment using two toroidal rings of distinguishable isotopically enriched, W-coated divertor tiles installed at 2 poloidal locations in the divertor. Post-mortem Rutherford backscatter spectrometry of the surface of the CPs provided areal density profiles of elemental W coverage. Higher W content was measured on the probe side facing along the field lines toward the inner target indicating higher concentration of W in the plasma upstream of the CP, even though the W-coated rings were in the outer target region of the divertor. Inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy validates the isotopic tracer technique through analysis of CPs exposed during L-mode discharges with the outer strike point on the isotopically enriched W coated-tile ring. The contribution from each divertor ring of W to the deposition profiles found on the mid-plane collector probes was able to be de-convoluted using a stable isotope mixing model. The results provided quantitative information on the W source and transport from specific poloidal locations within the lower divertor region.

Dual-pass upgrade to the Thomson scattering diagnostic on the Prototype-Material Plasma Exposure eXperiment (Proto-MPEX).

The Thomson scattering (TS) diagnostic on the Prototype-Material Plasma Exposure eXperiment has been upgraded to measure electron temperature (T e ) and density (n e ) simultaneously at two axial locations. After the first pass through the vacuum vessel, the exiting laser beamline is re-collimated in the atmosphere and rerouted into the vacuum vessel for the second pass. The upgrade will help diagnose axial T e and n e gradients between the "central chamber" and the target region which are located 1 m and 2.5 m, respectively, downstream from the Helicon radio-frequency source. The TS measurements have given T e ≈ 4-15 eV and n e ≈ 2-4 × 1019 m-3 at the central chamber and T e ≈ 1-2 eV and n e ≈ 1-2 × 1019 m-3 at the target region. The upgrade also increases the number of sampling points at the target region from 3 fibers to 5 fibers, measuring 3 cm radially across the plasma column, and 25 fibers in the central chamber, radially spanning 8 cm. The intensified CCD camera is double triggered for each laser pulse in order to measure (1) the TS and laser stray light and (2) the plasma background light that contains nuisance emission lines and bremsstrahlung. Subtracting the background light from the TS photons improves the temperature and density measurements. Details of the diagnostic setup, axial and radial measurements, and areas for further optimization are discussed.

Heat flux estimates of power balance on Proto-MPEX with IR imaging.

The Prototype Material Plasma Exposure eXperiment (Proto-MPEX) at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) is a precursor linear plasma device to the Material Plasma Exposure eXperiment (MPEX), which will study plasma material interactions (PMIs) for future fusion reactors. This paper will discuss the initial steps performed towards completing a power balance on Proto-MPEX to quantify where energy is lost from the plasma, including the relevant diagnostic package implemented. Machine operating parameters that will improve Proto-MPEX's performance may be identified, increasing its PMI research capabilities.

Measuring time of flight of fusion products in an inertial electrostatic confinement fusion device for spatial profiling of fusion reactions.

A new diagnostic has been developed that uses the time of flight (TOF) of the products from a nuclear fusion reaction to determine the location where the fusion reaction occurred. The TOF diagnostic uses charged particle detectors on opposing sides of the inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) device that are coupled to high resolution timing electronics to measure the spatial profile of fusion reactions occurring between the two charged particle detectors. This diagnostic was constructed and tested by the University of Wisconsin-Madison Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion Group in the IEC device, HOMER, which accelerates deuterium ions to fusion relevant energies in a high voltage (∼100 kV), spherically symmetric, electrostatic potential well [J. F. Santarius, G. L. Kulcinski, R. P. Ashley, D. R. Boris, B. B. Cipiti, S. K. Murali, G. R. Piefer, R. F. Radel, T. E. Radel, and A. L. Wehmeyer, Fusion Sci. Technol. 47, 1238 (2005)]. The TOF diagnostic detects the products of D(d,p)T reactions and determines where along a chord through the device the fusion event occurred. The diagnostic is also capable of using charged particle spectroscopy to determine the Doppler shift imparted to the fusion products by the center of mass energy of the fusion reactants. The TOF diagnostic is thus able to collect spatial profiles of the fusion reaction density along a chord through the device, coupled with the center of mass energy of the reactions occurring at each location. This provides levels of diagnostic detail never before achieved on an IEC device.

Deuterium anions in inertial electrostatic confinement devices.

A magnetic deflection-energy analyzer and Faraday trap diagnostic have been used to make measurements of divergent deuterium anion flow in the inertial electrostatic confinement experiment at the University of Wisconsin-Madison (UW-IEC) [J. F. Santarius, G. L. Kulcinski, R. P. Ashley, D. R. Boris, B. B. Cipiti, S. K. Murali, G. R. Piefer, R. F. Radel, I. E. Radel, and A. L. Wehmeyer, Fusion Sci. Technol. 47, 1238 (2005)], a device to confine high-energy light ions in a spherically symmetric electrostatic potential well. Deuterium anion current densities as high as 8.5 microA/cm2 have been measured at the wall of the UW-IEC device, 40 cm from the surface of the device cathode with a detector assembly of admittance area 0.7 cm2. Energy spectra obtained using a magnetic deflection-energy analyzer diagnostic indicate the presence of D2(-), and D- ions produced through thermal electron attachment near the device cathode, as well as D- ions produced via charge-transfer processes between the anode and cathode of the device.

Transfer of maternal colostral leukocytes promotes development of the neonatal immune system Part II. Effects on neonatal lymphocytes.

It has been established that maternal leukocytes, conditioned by the mammary environment, cross the neonatal gut and circulate in the newborn calf. However, the impact of these cells on the development of neonatal immunity remains to be determined. This study examined the effects of maternal colostral leukocytes on development and maturation of neonatal adaptive immunity by examining the expression of surface markers on neonatal lymphocytes. At birth, neonatal calves were fed whole colostrum, or colostrum that had the maternal cells removed (cell-free colostrum), from their respective dams. Peripheral blood samples were collected at regular intervals over the first 4 weeks of life and lymphocytes were evaluated for surface expression of cellular markers. The results of these studies demonstrated that calves receiving whole colostrum had fewer CD11a positive lymphocytes in circulation during the first 2 weeks of life and this marker was expressed at a lower density than calves receiving cell-free colostrum. In addition, calves receiving whole colostrum also had a higher percentage of lymphocytes expressing the activation markers CD25 and CD26 by 7 days after birth. During the first week of life, lymphocytes from calves receiving whole colostrum had a higher density of MHC class I expression on their surfaces than cells from calves receiving cell-free colostrum. In general, these results indicate that transfer of maternal cells with colostrum allows for more rapid development of lymphocytes and maternal cells appeared to enhance their activation.

Transfer of maternal colostral leukocytes promotes development of the neonatal immune system I. Effects on monocyte lineage cells.

Although it has been established that maternal leukocytes traffic from colostrum into the neonatal circulation, the effects of these cells on neonatal immunity are only beginning to be understood. This study examined the effects of maternal colostral leukocytes on development and maturation of neonatal antigen presenting cells. At birth, groups of neonatal calves received whole or cell-free colostrum (CFC) from their respective dams. Peripheral blood samples were obtained over the first 4 weeks of life, and expression of surface markers associated with cellular activation and physiological stress were monitored on monocyte lineage cells. Calves receiving cell-free colostrum at birth expressed elevated levels of CD11a, CD11c, and CD14, compared to calves receiving whole colostrum (C). Calves receiving cell-free colostrum had an elevated number of monocytes in the peripheral blood during the first 2 weeks of life, however, these cells expressed lower levels of expression of CD25 and MHC class I compared to calves receiving whole colostrum. The most significant differences in marker expression occurred within the first 7 days of life.

Rapid infusion of a phospholipid emulsion attenuates the effects of endotoxaemia in horses.

REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Endotoxaemia currently is associated with a poor prognosis in horses. The results of recent trials in other species indicate that phospholipid emulsions reduce the deleterious effects of endotoxin (LPS). However, in a previous study in horses, a 2 h infusion of emulsion caused an unacceptable degree of haemolysis. HYPOTHESIS: Rapid administration of a lower total dose of emulsion would reduce the effects of LPS and induce less haemolysis; the emulsion would reduce inflammatory effects of LPS in vitro. METHODS: Twelve healthy horses received an i.v. infusion either of saline or a phospholipid emulsion (100 mg/kg), followed immediately by E. coli 055:B5 LPS (30 ng/kg). Clinical parameters, haematological profiles, serum tumour necrosis factor (TNF) activity, serum lipid profiles, urine analyses and severity of haemolysis were monitored before and at selected times after LPS. Monocytes were also incubated in vitro with LPS in the presence or absence of emulsion, after which TNF and tissue factor activities were determined. RESULTS: Clinical signs of endotoxaemia were reduced in horses receiving the emulsion, including clinical score, heart rate, rectal temperature, serum TNF activity, and the characteristic leucopenic response to LPS, when compared to horses not receiving the emulsion. Three horses receiving the emulsion had none, 2 had mild and one had moderate haemolysis. There were no differences in urinalysis results and creatinine concentrations, either within the groups over time or between the groups. Serum concentrations of phosphatidylcholine, bile acids and triglycerides peaked immediately after the infusion; there were no significant changes in concentrations of nonesterified fatty acids or cholesterol. Incubation of equine monocytes with emulsion prevented LPS-induced TNF and tissue factor activities. CONCLUSIONS: Rapid administration of emulsion significantly reduced inflammatory effects of LPS in vivo and caused a clinically insignificant degree of haemolysis. The results of the in vitro studies indicate that emulsion prevents not only LPS-induced synthesis of cytokines, but also expression of membrane-associated mediators (i.e. tissue factor). POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: Rapid i.v. administration of emulsions containing phospholipids that bind endotoxin may provide a clinically useful method of treating endotoxaemia in horses.

The role of acidogenic diets and beta-hydroxybutyate on lymphocyte proliferation and serum antibody response against bovine respiratory viruses in Holstein steers.

Acidogenic diets were evaluated for their effects on lymphocyte proliferation in response to Staphylococcus aureus exotoxin B (SEB), and specific lymphocyte proliferation and serum-neutralizing antibody titers to four bovine respiratory viruses in vitro. Four Holstein steer calves, with an average weight of 213 +/- 42 kg, were fed a basal (control) diet consisting of 49% forage and 51% concentrate (DM basis), with 15% CP (on a DM basis). Three additional treatment diets were used: 1) the basal diet supplemented with 700 mL/d of butylene glycol (BG) to induce ketoacidosis by increasing blood beta-hydroxybutyate (BHBA); 2) the basal diet supplemented with 1.2 +/- 0.1 kg/d of anionic salts (AS; Soychor 16.7, West Central Soy, Ralston, IA) to induce a metabolic acidosis; and 3) the basal diet with all forage replaced by finely ground corn and soybean meal blended to provide 15% CP (HG), to induce lactic acidosis. The calves were fed each diet for 21 d in a 4 x 4 Latin square design. Blood samples were collected on d 18, 19, and 20 of each 21-d period and analyzed for pH; concentrations of BHBA; in vitro lymphocyte proliferation to SEB, bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV), bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV), parainfluenza-3 (PI-3), and bovine herpesvirus-1 (BHV-1); and titers of serum-neutralizing antibodies against the four viruses. Following treatment, the average pH of the serum samples was 7.38 for calves fed the control diet, 7.37 for the BG treatment, and 7.36 for the HG treatment, and was decreased (P < 0.05) to 7.33 for the AS treatment. All acidogenic diets decreased lymphocyte response to SEB (P < 0.05). The lymphocyte proliferative response, however, of each virus showed a different pattern of interaction with the three acidogenic diets tested. The AS diet was associated with increased lymphocyte proliferative response to BVDV and BRSV (P < 0.01) and increased serum neutralization titers to BHV-1 (P < 0.05). In calves fed the BHBA-inducing diet (BG), an increase in lymphocyte proliferation to BRSV was observed (P < 0.05). A similar relationship to blood BHBA concentration was not observed with the lymphocyte proliferation to BVDV, PI-3, or BHV-1. Titers of serum-neutralizing antibody against PI3 (P < 0.05) and BHV-1 (P < 0.01) were negatively correlated with blood pH, and titers of serum neutralizing antibodies to BHV-1 were negatively correlated to elevated circulating concentrations of BHBA (P < 0.05).

Growth and health of Holstein calves fed milk replacers supplemented with antibiotics or Enteroguard.

Forty-five Holstein calves were fed milk replacers containing either antibiotics [MRA (oxytetracycline at 138 mg/kg and neomycin at 276 mg/kg), n = 22)] or Enteroguard [MRE, a blend of fructooligosaccharides, allicin, and gut-active microbes at (129 mg/kg, n = 23)] from birth to 5 wk of age to compare effects on average daily gain and on incidence of scours. Performance was evaluated by measuring weight gain, feed efficiency, and fecal scores. The overall body weight gains and severity of scours were not different between treatments, nor were there differences in starter intake or mean body weight gain. During wk 2, the average gain of calves fed MRA was less than that of calves fed MRE (0.07 vs. 0.09 kg/d, P = 0.09), and greater during wk 5 (0.62 vs. 0.51 kg/d, P < 0.01); however, total gain for calves fed MRE was not different from calves fed MRA. Likewise, average feed efficiencies (gain/dry matter intake) were not different. Severity of scours, as measured by fecal scores, and concentrations of serum proteins, an indirect measure of immunoglobulins, were similar for calves fed MRA and MRE. The results suggest that antibiotics in milk replacers can be replaced with compounds such as fructooligosaccharides, probiotics, and allicin to obtain similar calf performance.

Composition and properties of milk and butter from cows fed fish oil.

A control diet and a fish oil diet were fed to 12 multiparous Holstein cows to determine how the incorporation of Menhaden fish oil in the diet would influence the fatty acid composition, especially the conjugated linoleic acid and transvaccenic acid, contents of milk and butter. The control diet consisted of a 50:50 ratio of forage to concentrate, and the fish oil diet consisted of the control diet with 2% (on a dry matter basis) added fish oil. Milk from cows fed the control diet contained higher average concentrations of milk fat (3.37%) compared with milk from cows fed the fish oil diet (2.29%). Milk from cows fed fish oil contained higher concentrations of conjugated linoleic acid, transvaccenic acid, and total unsaturated fatty acids (0.68 and 2.51; 1.42 and 6.28; and 30.47 and 41.71 g/100 g of fat, respectively). Butter made from the fish oil diet milk also had higher concentrations of conjugated linoleic acid, transvaccenic acid, and unsaturated fatty acids. Penetrometer readings indicated fish oil diet butters were softer at 4 and 20 degrees C than the control diet butters. Acid degree values were similar in the fish oil butters compared with the control butters. No significant difference was found in the flavor characteristics of milk and butter from cows fed the control and fish oil diets. Production of milk and butter with increased amounts of conjugated linoleic acid, transvaccenic acid, and other beneficial fatty acids may have a desirable impact on the health of consumers and lead to increased sales.

Influence of dietary fish oil on conjugated linoleic acid and other fatty acids in milk fat from lactating dairy cows.

Lactating cows were fed menhaden fish oil to elevate concentrations of conjugated linoleic acid, transvaccenic acid, and n-3 fatty acids in milk. Twelve multiparous Holstein cows at 48+/-11 DIM were assigned randomly to a replicated 4 x 4 Latin square. Each treatment period was 35 d in length, with data collected d 15 to 35 of each period. On a dry matter (DM) basis, diets contained 25% corn silage, 25% alfalfa hay, and 50% of the respective concentrate mix. Fish oil was supplemented at 0, 1, 2, and 3% of ration DM. Linear decreases were observed for DM intake (28.8, 28.5, 23.4, and 20.4 kg/d) and milk fat (2.99, 2.79, 2.37, and 2.30%) for 0 to 3% dietary fish oil, respectively. Milk yield (31.7, 34.2, 32.3, and 27.4 kg/d) increased as dietary fish oil increased from 0 to 1% but decreased linearly from 1 to 3% dietary fish oil. Milk protein percentages (3.17, 3.19, 3.21, and 3.17) were similar for all treatments. When the 2% fish oil diet was fed, concentrations of conjugated linoleic acid and transvaccenic acid in milk fat increased to 356% (to 2.2 g/ 100 g of total fatty acids) and 502% (to 6.1 g/100 g), respectively, of amounts when 0% fish oil was fed. There were no additional increases in these fatty acids when cows were fed 3% fish oil. The n-3 fatty acids increased from a trace to over 1 g/100 g of milk fatty acids, when the 3% fish oil diet was fed. Fish oil supplementation to diets of dairy cows increased the conjugated linoleic acid, transvaccenic acid, and n-3 fatty acids in milk.

Segmental mediolytic arteritis involving hepatic arteries.

Segmental mediolytic arteritis is a rare, noninflammatory arteriopathy that involves the splanchnic arteries of adults with shock and the coronary arteries of neonates with hypoxemia. We report the first case (to our knowledge) of segmental mediolytic arteritis involving the hepatic arteries. The lesion begins with cytoplasmic vacuolar degeneration of the arterial smooth-muscle cells, which then progresses to coalescence of vacuoles, leading to disruption of the media, intramural hemorrhage, and periadventitial fibrin deposition. Segmental mediolysis results in arterial wall defects, which can lead to dissecting aneurysms or hemorrhage due to arterial rupture. The intima and internal elastica are spared from the lytic process, and there is minimal periadventitial inflammation. Segmental mediolytic arteritis is not a true arteritis; therefore, segmental mediolytic arteriopathy may be a preferable term. Morphological similarities exist between segmental mediolytic arteritis and arterial fibromuscular dysplasia. In our case, hepatic ischemia correlated with mediolysis involving the hepatic arterial branches. Segmental mediolytic arteritis is thought to be due to an inappropriate vasospastic response, developing in the setting of hypoperfusion and hypoxemia.

Cost effectiveness of individual vs. group cognitive behavior therapy for problems of depression and anxiety in an HMO population.

Randomly assigned 44 outpatient Ss, enrollees of the George Washington University Health Plan, a Health Maintenance Organization (HMO), to one of three treatment modalities: (1) a cognitive behavior therapy group; (2) a traditional process-oriented interpersonal group; and (3) cognitive behavior therapy in an individual format. All Ss were referred by their physicians to the HMO Mental Health Practice for treatment for anxiety and/or depression. Beck's Depression Inventory, Speilberger's State-Trait Anxiety Inventory and Gay and Galassi's Adult Self-Expression Scale (an assertion measure) were administered pre- and post-treatment to all Ss. A subsample of these Ss also were rated pre- and post-treatment on the Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression by experienced clinicians blind to the treatment groups. All three experimental groups significantly improved on all dependent measures from pre- to post-treatment, and no differential treatment effects were found.