Negative urgency as a state-level process.

OBJECTIVE: Test whether global self-reports of urgency moderated the within-person associations of affect and impulsive behaviors. BACKGROUND: Negative urgency is a personality trait that is a risk factor for a range of psychopathology. Although it is assumed that global self-reports of urgency measure individual tendencies to act more impulsively in the face of negative emotions, evidence from ecological momentary assessment studies is mixed. METHOD: In this Registered Report, we used ecological momentary assessment data from a large sample of young adults (n = 496, age 18-22, 5 surveys per day for 40 days). RESULTS: All forms of momentary impulsivity were impaired in moments when people reported more intense negative emotions, but global self-reports of urgency did not explain individual differences in this association. Moreover, averaged affective states, rather than specific dimensions, affective circumplex, or appraisals, best predicted impulsive states. CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest that face-valid interpretations of global self-report of urgency are inaccurate, and it may be important to understand how some people come to understand themselves as high on urgency rather than assuming that people's self-reports of their motivations are accurate. Momentary experiences of emotions globally impact multiple weakly to moderately associated impulsive behaviors, and future research should seek to understand both when and for whom these associations are strongest.

Characterizing the momentary association between loneliness, depression, and social interactions: Insights from an ecological momentary assessment study.

Evidence suggests that loneliness causes people to feel more depressed. It is unknown, however, why this association occurs and whether momentary versus chronic experiences of loneliness are implicated. Theoretical accounts suggest that momentary feelings of loneliness produce two competing motivations: social reaffiliation and social withdrawal. Social affiliation is protective against depression; social withdrawal, in contrast, is a risk factor. Thus, engaging in frequent and high-quality interactions following experiences of loneliness may protect against subsequent depression. We tested this hypothesis using a random-interval experience sampling design (5x/day/day, 14 days; Nobs = 6568) with a racially/ethnically diverse sample of adults with elevated depression symptoms (N = 102). Momentary loneliness was associated with depressed mood at the same time point and âˆ¼2.5h and âˆ¼5h later. Frequency and quality of social interaction did not moderate these associations. Findings suggest that momentary feelings of loneliness may be an important target for clinical intervention.

An experimental investigation into the effect of negative affect on the behavioral economic demand for alcohol.

OBJECTIVE: It is hypothesized that alcohol use is reinforcing when used as a strategy to cope with negative affect. Although the evidence for this hypothesis in observational data is weak, some experimental evidence suggests that the behavioral economic demand for alcohol increases immediately following a negative emotional event. We hypothesized that people show a higher demand for alcohol following negative (vs. neutral) mood inductions and that this effect is stronger in people who report heavier drinking compared to people who report lighter drinking as well as stronger on days characterized by higher coping motives and negative urgency. METHOD: 309 college students who reported recent alcohol consumption (MAUDIT = 6.86) completed the alcohol purchase task after being subjected to 12 mood inductions (six negative, six neutral, order randomized) on 12 separate days. RESULTS: In our preregistered analyses, we found no evidence that the behavioral economic demand for alcohol was elevated following negative mood inductions. The mood inductions in our study were not as strong as has been reported in previous research, weakening the preregistered inferences. In exploratory analyses performed on a subset of the data in which the mood inductions worked as intended, demand was higher following negative mood inductions. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study are not conclusive. In light of previous research, we consider these data to slightly increase our confidence that demand for alcohol is increased immediately following a negative emotional event. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

The daily association between affect and alcohol use: A meta-analysis of individual participant data.

Influential psychological theories hypothesize that people consume alcohol in response to the experience of both negative and positive emotions. Despite two decades of daily diary and ecological momentary assessment research, it remains unclear whether people consume more alcohol on days they experience higher negative and positive affect in everyday life. In this preregistered meta-analysis, we synthesized the evidence for these daily associations between affect and alcohol use. We included individual participant data from 69 studies (N = 12,394), which used daily and momentary surveys to assess affect and the number of alcoholic drinks consumed. Results indicate that people are not more likely to drink on days they experience high negative affect, but are more likely to drink and drink heavily on days high in positive affect. People self-reporting a motivational tendency to drink-to-cope and drink-to-enhance consumed more alcohol, but not on days they experienced higher negative and positive affect. Results were robust across different operationalizations of affect, study designs, study populations, and individual characteristics. These findings challenge the long-held belief that people drink more alcohol following increases in negative affect. Integrating these findings under different theoretical models and limitations of this field of research, we collectively propose an agenda for future research to explore open questions surrounding affect and alcohol use.

Modeling the value-based decision to consume alcohol in response to emotional experiences.

Evidence for negative reinforcement of alcohol use is mixed; one possible explanation for this is that people make value-based decisions whether to regulate their emotions via alcohol or an alternative, and only drink-to-cope when alcohol's reinforcing value is larger than that of available alternatives. If this is the case, immediately following a negative emotional event, the value for alcohol should increase primarily in heavy drinkers, whereas in light drinkers, alternative ways of coping should be valued. We conducted a preregistered online experiment (N = 200) with a mixed design (between: heavy vs. light drinker; within: negative/neutral/positive mood induction). In each of three experimental sessions, participants first provided value ratings for a set of alcohol and food stimuli. Second, they were subjected to a mood induction. Third, they made forced choices between either two alcohol or food stimuli. We then applied a drift-diffusion model to these data and tested whether alcohol- and food-related decision-making parameters are differentially affected following the mood inductions in heavy and light drinkers. In preregistered analyses, we found that heavy drinkers did not value alcohol more but valued food less after the negative mood induction. Exploratory analyses uncovered that both heavy- and light-drinking participants valued alcohol more following the negative mood induction if they reported high alcohol craving at the start of the session. Collectively, these results provide some evidence for the idea that drinking-to-cope might be a value-based decision-making process. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Exploring associations between affect and marijuana use in everyday life via specification curve analysis.

Although frequently hypothesized, the evidence for associations between affect and marijuana use in everyday life remains ambiguous. Inconsistent findings across existing work may be due, in part, to differences in study design and analytic decisions, such as study inclusion criteria, the operationalization of affect, or the timing of affect assessment. We used specification curves to assess the robustness of the evidence for affect predicting same-day marijuana use and marijuana use predicting next-day affect across several hundred models that varied in terms of decisions that reflect those typical in this literature (e.g., whether to average affect prior to marijuana use or select the affect report closest in time to marijuana use). We fitted these curves to data from two ecological momentary assessment studies of regular marijuana and/or alcohol using college students (N = 287). Results provided robust evidence that marijuana use was slightly less likely following experiences of negative affect and slightly more likely following positive affect. Specification curves suggested that differences in previous findings are most likely a function of the specific emotion items used to represent affect rather than differences in inclusion criteria, the temporal assessment and modeling of affect, or the covariates added to the model. There was little evidence for an association between marijuana use and next-day affect. Overall, our findings provide evidence against the predictions made by affect reinforcement models in college students and suggest that future research should model the associations of marijuana use with discrete emotional states rather than general negative and positive affect. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Harmonization of theory, methods, and inferences in addictions research.

The articles in the present special section highlight four ways in which our applications of methods, and their harmonization with theory, can hold us back, and each offers an avenue for improvement that brings us closer to our goal of building a cumulative scientific record of the study of addiction. It brings together four articles that are intended to provide new ideas and directions for research on addictive behaviors. It is important for researchers to consider how their study designs, measurements, and statistical tests are specific expressions of the theories they wish to test. Each article illustrates a dimension of the gaps between theory and methods, provides an illustrated example of how to bridge those gaps, and provides easy to follow advice for how to apply these ideas in our own work. By designing for replication (Pearson et al., 2021), considering model-theory harmonization (Littlefield et al., 2021), moving toward plain language interpretation of effects (Halvorson et al., 2021), and thinking of models across levels of analysis (Soyster et al., 2021), we can move toward a more robust, replicable, and impactful science of addictive behaviors. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

A meta-analysis on the affect regulation function of real-time self-injurious thoughts and behaviours.

Prominent theories suggest that self-injurious thoughts and behaviours are negatively reinforced by decreased negative affect. The present meta-analysis quantifies effects from intensive longitudinal studies measuring negative affect and self-injurious thoughts and behaviours. We obtained data from 38 of the 79 studies (48%, 22 unique datasets) involving N = 1,644 participants (80% female, 75% white). Individual-participant data meta-analyses revealed changes in affect pre/post self-injurious thoughts and behaviours. In antecedent models, results supported increased negative affect before nonsuicidal self-injurious behaviour (k = 14, 95% CI 0.09 to 0.31) and suicidal thoughts (k = 14, 95% CI 0.03 to 0.19). For consequence models, negative affect was reduced following nonsuicidal self-injurious thoughts (k = 6, 95% CI -0.79 to -0.44), nonsuicidal self-injurious behaviours (k = 14, 95% CI -0.73 to -0.19) and suicidal thoughts (k = 13, 95% CI -0.79 to -0.23). Findings, which were not moderated by sampling strategies or sample composition, support the affect regulation function of self-injurious thoughts and behaviours.

No evidence for trait- and state-level urgency moderating the daily association between negative affect and subsequent alcohol use in two college samples.

It remains unclear whether the negative reinforcement pathway to problematic drinking exists, and if so, for whom. One idea that has received some support recently is that people who tend to act impulsively in response to negative emotions (i.e. people high in negative urgency) may specifically respond to negative affect with increased alcohol consumption. We tested this idea in a preregistered secondary data analysis of two ecological momentary assessment studies using college samples. Participants (N = 226) reported on their current affective state multiple times per day and also the following morning reported alcohol use of the previous night. We assessed urgency both at baseline and during the momentary affect assessments. Results from our Bayesian model comparison procedure, which penalises increasing model complexity, indicate that no combination of the variables of interest (negative affect, urgency, and the respective interactions) outperformed a baseline model that included two known demographic predictors of alcohol use. A non-preregistered exploratory analysis provided some evidence for the effect of daily positive affect, positive urgency, as well as their interaction on subsequent alcohol use. Taken together, our results suggest that college students' drinking may be better described by a positive rather than negative reinforcement cycle.

An experimental investigation into the effect of negative affect on the behavioral economic demand for alcohol.

Influential theoretical models hypothesize that alcohol use is an especially potent reinforcer when used as a strategy to cope with negative affect. Although the evidence for this idea in observational data is weak, some experimental evidence suggests that the behavioral economic demand for alcohol increases immediately following a negative emotional event. Because existing studies testing the effect of negative mood inductions on the demand for alcohol have several methodological limitations and do not take inter- and intraindividual variability into account, we developed an improved experimental design to increase our confidence in any potential within-person effect of negative mood inductions on alcohol demand as well as to test whether this effect exhibits systematic inter- and intraindividual variability. We hypothesize that people will show a higher demand for alcohol following negative compared to neutral mood inductions and that this effect is stronger in heavy compared to light drinkers as well as stronger on days characterized by higher coping motives and negative urgency. Three hundred twenty college students will complete the alcohol purchase task (APT) after being subjected to 100 mood inductions (six negative, six neutral) on 20 separate days. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

The effect of opportunity costs on mental fatigue in labor/leisure trade-offs.

Most people experience the feeling of mental fatigue on a daily basis. Previous research shows that mental fatigue impacts information processing and decision making. However, the proximal causes of mental fatigue are not yet well understood. In this research, we test the opportunity cost model of mental fatigue, which proposes that people become more fatigued when the next-best alternative to the current task is higher in value. In 4 preregistered experiments (N = 430), participants repeatedly reported their current level of fatigue and chose to perform a paid labor task versus an unpaid leisure task. In Study 1, all participants were offered the same labor/leisure choice. In Studies 2 and 3, we manipulated the opportunity costs of a labor task by varying the value of an alternative leisure task. In Study 4, we manipulated the opportunity costs of a labor task by varying the value of that labor task. In all studies, we found that people were more likely to choose for leisure as they became more fatigued. In Studies 2 through 4, we did not find that the manipulated leisure value influenced the amount of fatigue participants experienced nor the likelihood to choose for leisure. However, in exploratory analyses, in all studies, we found that participants who reported to value the leisure task more got more fatigued during labor and less fatigued during leisure. Collectively, these results provide cautious support for the opportunity cost model, but they also show that cost-benefit analyses relating to labor and leisure tasks are fleeting. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Fatigue, boredom and objectively measured smartphone use at work.

Nowadays, many people take short breaks with their smartphone at work. The decision whether to continue working or to take a smartphone break is a so-called labour versus leisure decision. Motivational models predict that people are more likely to switch from labour (work) to leisure (smartphone) the more fatigue or boredom they experience. In turn, fatigue and boredom are expected to decrease after the smartphone was used. However, it is not yet clear how smartphone use at work relates to fatigue and boredom. In this study, we tested these relationships in both directions. Participants (n = 83, all PhD candidates) reported their current level of fatigue and boredom every hour at work while an application continuously logged their smartphone use. Results indicate that participants were more likely to interact with their smartphone the more fatigued or bored they were, but that they did not use it for longer when more fatigued or bored. Surprisingly, participants reported increased fatigue and boredom after having used the smartphone (more). While future research is necessary, our results (i) provide real-life evidence for the notion that fatigue and boredom are temporally associated with task disengagement, and (ii) suggest that taking a short break with the smartphone may have phenomenological costs.

Labor/leisure decisions in their natural context: The case of the smartphone.

In this research, we attempt to understand a common real-life labor/leisure decision, i.e., to perform cognitive work or to interact with one's smartphone. In an ecologically valid experiment, participants (N = 112) could freely switch back and forth between doing a 2-back task and interacting with their own smartphone. We manipulated the value of the 2-back task (by varying the value of monetary rewards; within-subjects) and of the smartphone (by switching on and off airplane mode; within-subjects) while we recorded incoming notifications, such as text messages. Our study produced three main findings: (1) the current value of the smartphone did not increase our statistical model's ability to predict switches from labor to leisure when the current task value was also taken into account; (2) however, participants reacted strongly to naturally incoming notifications, which were the strongest predictor of labor-to-leisure switches; (3) there was no evidence that taking into account individual differences (in the value assigned to labor and leisure) improved the model's ability to predict labor-leisure switches. In sum, using a situated approach to studying labor/leisure decisions, our findings highlight the importance of high task motivation, as well as the temporary distractive potential of smartphone notifications, when people face the challenge of staying focused on their productive tasks.

"20,000 leagues under the sea": Sleep, cognitive performance, and self-reported recovery status during a 67-day military submarine mission.

Employing a field-based monitoring paradigm, the current study examined day-to-day fluctuations in actigraphy-based sleep recordings, cognitive performance (10-min psychomotor vigilance test; PVT), and self-reported recovery status among 14 submariners throughout a 67-day military mission. Mission averages reflected suboptimal sleep that was of short overall duration (5:46 ± 1:29 h per 24-h day) and relatively low efficiency (82.5 ± 9.9%); suboptimal levels of cognitive performance (PVT mRT = 283 ± 35 ms; PVT response errors = 5.3 ± 4.8); and moderate levels of self-reported recovery. Whilst self-reported recovery status remained stable across mission days, small but consistent day-to-day increases in sleep onset latency and PVT mRT accumulated to reflect meaningful deterioration in sleep and cognitive performance across the entire 67-day mission (i.e., 47% and 16% of the overall mission average, respectively). Future work is required to corroborate the current findings, firmly establish underlying causes, and make evidence-based suggestions for interventions to improve and uphold submariners' health and performance.

Mind-Wandering and Mindfulness as Mediators of the Relationship Between Online Vigilance and Well-Being.

As mobile technology allows users to be online anywhere and at all times, a growing number of users report feeling constantly alert and preoccupied with online streams of online information and communication-a phenomenon that has recently been termed online vigilance. Despite its growing prevalence, consequences of this constant orientation toward online streams of information and communication for users' well-being are largely unclear. In the present study, we investigated whether being constantly vigilant is related to cognitive consequences in the form of increased mind-wandering and decreased mindfulness and examined the resulting implications for well-being. To test our assumptions, we estimated a path model based on survey data (N = 371). The model supported the majority of our preregistered hypotheses: online vigilance was indeed related to mind-wandering and mindfulness, but only mindfulness mediated the relationship with decreased well-being. Thus, those mentally preoccupied with online communication were overall less satisfied with their lives and reported less affective well-being when they also experienced reduced mindfulness.