Challenges in Evaluating Interactive Visual Machine Learning Systems.

In interactive visual machine learning (IVML), humans and machine learning algorithms collaborate to achieve tasks mediated by interactive visual interfaces. This human-in-the-loop approach to machine learning brings forth not only numerous intelligibility, trust, and usability issues, but also many open questions with respect to the evaluation of the IVML system, both as separate components, and as a holistic entity that includes both human and machine intelligence. This article describes the challenges and research gaps identified in an IEEE VIS workshop on the evaluation of IVML systems.

The relationship between root hydraulics and scion vigour across Vitis rootstocks: what role do root aquaporins play?

Vitis vinifera scions are commonly grafted onto rootstocks of other grape species to influence scion vigour and provide resistance to soil-borne pests and abiotic stress; however, the mechanisms by which rootstocks affect scion physiology remain unknown. This study characterized the hydraulic physiology of Vitis rootstocks that vary in vigour classification by investigating aquaporin (VvPIP) gene expression, fine-root hydraulic conductivity (Lp(r)), % aquaporin contribution to Lp(r), scion transpiration, and the size of root systems. Expression of several VvPIP genes was consistently greater in higher-vigour rootstocks under favourable growing conditions in a variety of media and in root tips compared to mature fine roots. Similar to VvPIP expression patterns, fine-root Lp(r) and % aquaporin contribution to Lp(r) determined under both osmotic (Lp(r)(Osm)) and hydrostatic (Lp(r)(Hyd)) pressure gradients were consistently greater in high-vigour rootstocks. Interestingly, the % aquaporin contribution was nearly identical for Lp(r)(Osm) and Lp(r)(Hyd) even though a hydrostatic gradient would induce a predominant flow across the apoplastic pathway. In common scion greenhouse experiments, leaf area-specific transpiration (E) and total leaf area increased with rootstock vigour and were positively correlated with fine-root Lp(r). These results suggest that increased canopy water demands for scion grafted onto high-vigour rootstocks are matched by adjustments in root-system hydraulic conductivity through the combination of fine-root Lp(r) and increased root surface area.

Diving dentistry: a review of the dental implications of scuba diving.

In light of the overwhelming popularity of self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (SCUBA) diving, general dental practitioners should be prepared to address complications arising as a result of diving and to provide patients with accurate information. The aim of this article was to introduce the concepts of diving medicine and dentistry to the dentist, and to supply the dental practitioner with some diagnostic tools as well as treatment guidelines. The literature was reviewed to address diving barotrauma (pressure-induced injury related to an air space) to the head, face and oral regions, as well as scuba mouthpiece-related oral conditions. The relevant conditions for dentists who treat divers include diving-associated headache (migraine, tension-type headache), barosinusitis and barotitis-media (sinus and middle ear barotrauma, respectively), neuropathy, trigeminal (CN V) or facial (CN VII) nerve baroparesis (pressure-induced palsy), dental barotrauma (barometric-related tooth injury), barodontalgia (barometric-related dental pain), mouthpiece-associated herpes infection, pharyngeal gag reflex and temporomandibular joint disorder (dysfunction). For each condition, a theoretical description is followed by practical recommendations for the dental practitioner for the prevention and management of the condition.

Induction and characterization of an interface tissue by implantation of methylmethacrylate cement into the posterior part of the cervical spine of the dog.

After the implantation of methylmethacrylate cement into the posterior part of the cervical spine of the dog, a thick layer of connective tissue forms at the bone-cement interface. The tissue is six to eight millimeters thick and in all animals it surrounds the dorsal and lateral aspects of the masses of implanted cement, grows between the undersurface of the cement and the bone of the posterior elements, and completely covers that bone. This tissue was examined by light and electron microscopy and its collagenous components were extracted and analyzed biochemically by gel electrophoresis. Specific extracellular matrix proteins in the tissue at the bone-cement interface were also localized by immunohistochemistry. The tissue at the host-cement interface contained zones of fibrocytes and plump and teardrop-shaped cells within a collagenous matrix. Type-I, Type-III, and Type-V collagen were extracted and were identified by gel electrophoresis. Type-V collagen and fibronectin were localized predominantly around the plump and teardrop-shaped cells. Type-IV collagen and laminin were localized predominantly in an area just beneath the teardrop-shaped cells at the surface of the tissue overlying the cement, suggesting that a basement-membrane-like tissue had formed in this area.

Cervical ligamentous instability in a canine in vivo model.

A canine in vivo model of midcervical ligamentous instability was developed by dividing the anterior longitudinal ligament, anulus fibrosus, and all posterior ligamentous structures including the ligamentum flavum. The natural history of healing in the model, the effect on its healing by an adjacent one-level arthrodesis, and the effect of a one-level arthrodesis on normal adjacent ligamentous structures were studied radiographically, mechanically, and histologically. The authors determined that healing takes place primarily by anterior scar formation in their instability model but not to a degree sufficient to recreate normal mechanical stability. After three months, healing in the model was not affected by an adjacent arthrodesis; however, acutely, instability apparently was increased as three animals became quadriplegic between the second and fourth postoperative days. Arthrodesis did not affect adjacent normal ligamentous structures, during this period. Incomplete healing in the authors' model supports those who advocate arthrodesis as the treatment of choice for destabilizing cervical ligamentous injury. The authors previously reported the case of a patient who sustained bilateral facet dislocations adjacent to an arthrodesed segment and questioned whether this resulted from a stress-concentrating effect. This study indicates that this could well have been the case acutely. Thus, inadvertent exclusion of an unstable segment from an arthrodesis has potentially catastrophic results. Finally, the authors also have previously questioned whether arthrodesis of a midcervical segment could lead to instability of adjacent normal segments. This project does not support such a concern, at least for the three postoperative months of study.

Disorders of adrenal steroidogenesis.

This article reviews the processes of normal adrenal function, including the three main classes of hormones. From there it describes reduced or absent enzyme activity in the stages of steroid synthesis, and proceeds to outline the enzyme deficiency responsible for the clinical effects that manifest themselves in characteristic metabolic disturbances.

Nonclassic adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency.

Nonclassic adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency (21-OHD) is an autosomal recessive disorder distinguished from classic 21-OHD by clinical and hormonal criteria. It is most often described as a disorder of adrenal steroidogenesis with onset of virilization in late childhood, peripubertally or postpubertally. An overview of adrenal steroidogenesis is presented elsewhere in this publication. It is the aim of this article to focus on the clinical and hormonal manifestations of the disorder, with discussion of the current methods of diagnosis and management. Recent advances in classic and molecular genetics will follow.

Posterior cervical fusions using cerclage wires, methylmethacrylate cement and autogenous bone graft. An experimental study of a canine model.

UNLABELLED: Forty-eight adult mongrel dogs underwent posterior exposure of C4-C5, fixation of the two posterior spinous processes together with a no. 20-gauge cerclage wire, posterior element decortication, wound irrigation and the following: bone fusions (application of a standard volume of iliac crest autograft), polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) fusions (application of a standard volume of methylmethacrylate cement), Combination 1 fusions (application of one-half the volume of graft used in the bone fusions, over the facet joints. Methylmethacrylate cement was pressed into position centrally to surround the posterior spinous processes and cerclage wire), Combination 2 fusions (application of the same volume of graft used in the bone fusions, over the facet joints. Methylmethacrylate cement was applied as in the Combination 1 fusions). For each preparation, six animals survived 2 weeks or 3 months. All had monthly lateral cervical radiographs. At the appropriate times, they were killed and their C4-C5 segments excised and studied mechanically and histologically. At 2 weeks all of the above preparations were mechanically inferior to normal C4-C5 segments in respect to at least one of the parameters studied. At 3 months, the bone fusions and both combination fusions had developed sufficient mechanical stability so that they were equivalent to normal segments. At this time, the PMMA fusions remained inferior to the "normals." The mechanical data for the PMMA and both combination fusions was corroborated by the histology which demonstrated a fibrosynovial layer between the cement masses and underlying posterior element bone. In the 3-month combination fusions, the lateral aspects of the posterior elements had been spanned by a fusion mass. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Previously, the authors defined some of the problems associated with constructs modeled by their PMMA fusions. This work confirms the previous research. It also demonstrates that ultimate spinal stability is produced by combination constructs. Because of the 2-week mechanical data, it is recommended that when combination constructs are used clinically, the patient's neck be protected by an external orthosis in the early postoperative period.