Risk Assessment of Nine Coccidiostats in Commercial and Home-Raised Eggs.

The poultry industry, in order to prevent and control coccidiosis caused by Eimeria spp., widely uses coccidiostats as feed additives. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the presence of nine coccidiostats in 62 egg samples by UHPLC-MS/MS. Overall, detection frequency and average concentration were 90.3% (56/62) and 106.3 µg kg-1, respectively. Only diclazuril and nicarbazin were detected. Diclazuril, only found in home-raised eggs, showed an overall detection frequency of 8.1% (5/62), with average and maximum concentrations of 0.46 ± 1.90 µg kg-1 and 13.6 µg kg-1, respectively. Nicarbazin presented an overall higher frequency, 88.7% (55/62), with levels up to 744.8 µg kg-1. Additionally, four samples (6.5%) presented both nicarbazin and diclazuril. Home-raised egg samples (n = 28) showed a detection frequency of 89.3%, with nicarbazin found in more samples (85.7% vs. 17.9%) and at higher levels (266.3 ± 169.4 µg kg-1 vs. 0.91 ± 2.78 µg kg-1) when compared to diclazuril. In supermarket samples (n = 34), only nicarbazin was detected in 31 samples (91.1%), with an average of 167.6 ± 62.2 µg kg-1. Considering the average contamination scenario, consumers' health should not be adversely affected by egg consumption. In every scenario considered, children were the most vulnerable population group.

Occurrence of zearalenone in dairy farms - A study on the determinants of exposure and risk assessment.

The Azorean dairy industry is based on a semi-intensive model. Due to the few storage facilities and the large climatic fluctuations that characterize the Azores, the complete feed mixture (total mixed ration - TMR) is susceptible to the proliferation of a variety of fungi and mycotoxin contamination. Thus, chronic ingestion of these xenobiotics may lead to increased susceptibility to disease, loss of reproductive performance and, in the case of dairy cattle, decreased productivity and quality of milk produced. Since it is impossible to eliminate completely the presence of mycotoxins, it is essential to ensure the implementation of strategies to reduce their concentration in products intended for food and feed, as well as to monitor and control the levels present in food. This study aimed to evaluate the occurrence zearalenone (ZEA) in feed (TMR) in four dairy cattle farms on the Azorean Island of São Miguel and relate it to the occurrence of this mycotoxin in the milk produced, by associating several production and health indicators translated by the monthly milk contrast. To this end, the monthly milk contrast data, the determination of ZEA in the ingested feed and the (individual) milk samples from the four farms included in the study were used. Eighty-three (98.8%) of the milk samples under study had detectable ZEA levels (1.56 ± 1.36 µg/L), higher than reported in previous similar studies. Although ZEA concentration was not significantly associated with any production indicator analyzed (days in milk, age at calving, milk yield, protein content, butyrate content, somatic cell concentration and urea), it was found that the production regime and type of feed management is a major factor in the exposure of animals to high mycotoxin contents. Further studies are recommended to ensure continued monitoring and reduction of the risk associated with exposure of animals and humans to ZEA.

Coccidiostats and Poultry: A Comprehensive Review and Current Legislation.

Coccidiosis remains one of the major problems of the poultry industry. Caused by Eimeria species, Coccidiosis is a contagious parasitic disease affecting poultry with great economic significance. Currently, in order to prevent health problems caused by this disease, broiler farmers make extensive use of coccidiostats in poultry feed, maintaining animal health and, in some cases, enhancing feed conversion. The presence of unauthorized substances, residues of veterinary products and chemical contaminants in the food industry is of concern, since they may pose a risk to public health. As the use of coccidiostats has been increasing without any requirements for veterinary prescription, research and surveillance of coccidiostat residues in poultry meat is becoming imperative. This review presents an up-to-date comprehensive discussion of the state of the art regarding coccidiosis, the most used anticoccidials in poultry production, their mode of action, their prophylactic use, occurrence and the European Union (EU) applicable legislation.

Risk Assessment of Nine Coccidiostats in Commercial and Home Raised Poultry.

For the first time, this paper aimed to evaluate nine ionophore and synthetic coccidiostat residues in poultry muscle samples, obtained from different production types, by solid-liquid extraction followed by liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The fully validated methodology was successfully applied to a total of 101 chicken and turkey samples obtained from canteens, supermarkets, and home productions in Portugal. Halofuginone, diclazuril, decoquinate, narasin, lasalocid, and salinomycin were detected in 20.8% of the samples. Home raised samples showed a greater frequency, 47.1%. The synthetic coccidiostats halofuginone, diclazuril, and decoquinate were found in averages of 0.7 µg kg-1,2.9 µg kg-1, and 3.7 µg kg-1, respectively, while averages of 1.2 µg kg-1, 1.6 µg kg-1, and 1.3 µg kg-1 were found regarding the ionophores narasin, lasalocid, and salinomycin. As for the risk assessment, values lower than 8.06% of the acceptable daily intake (ADI) were observed, indicating that exposure to coccidiostats through consumption of poultry meat does not represent risk to consumers.

Urine biomonitoring of glyphosate in children: Exposure and risk assessment.

The use of glyphosate has been increasing over the years, making it one of the most consumed herbicides in the world. Although children are considered a vulnerable population, only four previous published studies determined glyphosate in the urine of non-occupationally exposed children. The paucity of epidemiological data and biomonitoring surveys are considered major gaps, that hinder the implementation of science driven policies in the protection of public health. The aim of the present study was to determine glyphosate in the urine of 41 Portuguese children (2-13 years old) and identify potential determinants of exposure. Glyphosate was detected in 95.1% of the samples (1.77 ± 0.86 µg/L), up to a maximum value of 4.35 µg/L. Glyphosate concentrations were higher in the urine of children aged 7-9 years, living near agricultural areas (<1 km), with a higher percentage of consumption of home-produced foods, and whose parents applied herbicides in the backyard. Risk assessment revealed an exposure representing 1-5.58% of the established Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) of glyphosate (0.5 mg/kg bw/day). The results should be further analyzed considering the age of the participants, for which no adjusted ADI exists. This was the first published report of glyphosate exposure in the urine of Portuguese children.

Extraction of ochratoxin A in bread samples by the QuEChERS methodology.

A QuEChERS method for the extraction of ochratoxin A (OTA) from bread samples was evaluated. A factorial design (2(3)) was used to find the optimal QuEChERS parameters (extraction time, extraction solvent volume and sample mass). Extracts were analysed by LC with fluorescence detection. The optimal extraction conditions were: 5 g of sample, 15 mL of acetonitrile and 3 min of agitation. The extraction procedure was validated by systematic recovery experiments at three levels. The recoveries obtained ranged from 94.8% (at 1.0 µg kg(-1)) to 96.6% (at 3.0 µg kg(-1)). The limit of quantification of the method was 0.05 µg kg(-1). The optimised procedure was applied to 20 samples of different bread types ("Carcaça", "Broa de Milho", and "Broa de Avintes") highly consumed in Portugal. None of the samples exceeded the established European legal limit of 3 µg kg(-1).

Food safety implications of ochratoxin A in animal-derived food products.

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is an important mycotoxin with potential to reach the human food chain through carry-over of contaminated, mostly cereal-based, feed into animal-derived products. Certain population groups, such as infants and children, are intensive and relatively restricted consumers of some animal-derived products, particularly milk and other dairy products, which may become contaminated with OTA. This review examines the literature on the occurrence of OTA in animal-derived products and discusses the public health and food safety implications of consumption of these products. The risk of OTA contamination of meat, milk, blood and derived products is discussed.

Ochratoxin A in feed of food-producing animals: an undesirable mycotoxin with health and performance effects.

Mycotoxins are secondary fungal metabolites, whose presence in feed- and foodstuffs is unavoidable. Ochratoxin A (OTA) is one of the known mycotoxins with greatest public health and agro-economic significance. Several toxic effects have been ascribed following exposure, namely nephrotoxicity, as well negative impacts in the performance of farm animals, resulting in major economic implications. Of no less importance for the route of human exposure that can also embody the carry-over of OTA from feed into animal-derived products is also a concern. For all these reasons the present article updates the worldwide occurrence of OTA in different raw ingredients and finished feed destined to food-producing animals. After that a brief characterization of specie susceptibility and the major rationales is made. An historical overview of field outbreaks linked to OTA exposure in farm animals, concerning the implicated feeds, contamination levels and major clinical and productivity effects is presented. Finally a review of the major animal health and performance potential impacts of animals being reared on contaminated feed is made allied to a perspective regarding its co-occurrence with other mycotoxins, and simultaneous parasitic and bacterial infections. Ultimately, this article aims to be instructive and draw attention to a mycotoxin so often neglected and elapsed from the list of differential diagnosis in farm practice. For the unpredictability and unavoidability of occurrence, OTA will definitely be an enduring problem in animal production.

Ochratoxin a in Portugal: a review to assess human exposure.

In Portugal, the climate, dietary habits, and food contamination levels present the characteristics for higher population susceptibility to ochratoxin A (OTA), one of the known mycotoxins with the greatest public health and agro-economic importance. In this review, following a brief historical insight on OTA research, a summary of the available data on OTA occurrence in food (cereals, bread, wine, meat) and biological fluids (blood, urine) is made. With this data, an estimation of intake is made to ascertain and update the risk exposure estimation of the Portuguese population, in comparison to previous studies and other populations.